tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-135192989943488052024-03-16T04:10:16.236+03:00Jaba"Fiat Justitia Ruat Caelum"jabahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02886069170766354845noreply@blogger.comBlogger2754125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-13519298994348805.post-3535180906518166732023-01-31T18:15:00.010+03:002023-01-31T19:00:38.216+03:00Historical School | Jurisprudence<p><b> Historical School | Jurisprudence</b></p><p><b>By Dr. Jaba Shadrack, University of Dar es Salaam, Department of Public Law</b></p><div style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 0in 0in 1pt;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 0in 0in 1.0pt 0in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b> </b><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span><span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> <span style="font-family: times;"> <span style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></b><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">1. Introduction:
timeline and conceptual issues </span></b></p></div><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;"></p><ul><li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">The historical school is also known as the </span><i style="text-indent: -0.25in;">evolutionary</i><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"> or </span><i style="text-indent: -0.25in;">continental,</i><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"> or </span><i style="text-indent: -0.25in;">genetic </i><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">school
of jurisprudence or </span><i style="text-indent: -0.25in;">comparative
ethnological</i><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"> jurisprudence</span></span></li><li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">The historical school first arose in the German
romantic era between 1880 (the nineteenth century) and 1920 (after World War I).
Then, it was succeeded by the sociological school.</span></li><li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><i style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Romanticism</i><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">/</span><i style="text-indent: -0.25in;">romantic</i><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"> period (1798-1837) was influenced
by the French Revolution (5 May 1789 – 9 November 1799) – characterised, among
other things, by massive social changes, intellectual movements and the emergence
of research universities (as opposed to teaching universities).</span></span></li><li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">The historical school was part of that century’s
turn to history in legal scholarship and across most humanities, whereby law
was treated as a product of the past (history) or evolution process. Therefore,
historical jurisprudence was the legal version of this broader trend.</span></li><li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">According to </span><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Peter</b><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"> </span><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Stein</b><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"> (Cambridge Professor),
historical school is the title given to a group of theories that explain law as
the product of predetermined patterns of change based on socio-economic change.</span></span></li><li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">In other words, historical jurisprudence is ‘<i style="text-indent: -0.25in;">concerned with theories of legal evolution’</i><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">.
As </span><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Stein</b><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"> also points out, legal
evolution was closely associated with Roman law.</span></span></li><li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Historical jurisprudence was founded on the
connection between law and socio-economic circumstances.</span></li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l35 level1 lfo17; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></p><div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; margin-left: 0.25in; margin-right: 0in; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt;">
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; margin-left: 0in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">These theories of legal evolution hold
that law develops on predetermined lines from its internal forces. The
implication was that changes should be left to these natural social mechanisms
and that reform legislation and codification were contrary to the nature of
law.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l35 level1 lfo17; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"> The law does not fall from the sky. It tends to
develop as an expression of a society’s peculiar culture and values.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"> The followers of this school argued that law is
found, not made.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"> The law is the exaggerative form of social, custom,
economic needs, conventions, religious principles, and relations of the people
with society.</span></li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l35 level1 lfo17; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></p><div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; margin-left: 0.25in; margin-right: 0in; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt 1pt 3pt;">
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; margin-left: 0in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><b>Section
2(3)</b> of the <b>Judicature and
Application of Laws</b> <b>(Cap. 358) </b>provides:
“<i>… said common law, doctrines of equity
and statutes of general application shall be in force in Tanzania only so far
as the circumstances of Tanzania and its inhabitants permit, and subject to
such qualifications as local circumstances may render necessary</i>.” <o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l35 level1 lfo17; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"> </span><b>James
Carter</b>, an American jurist, argued that law existed before the political
revolution or consciousness. Therefore, it must be traced and identified with
the customs in a given society.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"> </span><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">The law is thought to be not merely ongoing; it
has a history; it constitutes a tradition.</span></span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"> </span>Society is the centre of gravity of law, and
both evolve in sync.</span></li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l35 level1 lfo17; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></p><div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; margin-left: 0.25in; margin-right: 0in; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt;">
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; margin-left: 0in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><b>Reimann</b>
notes, “Historical jurisprudence treated the law as inevitably a product of the
past. Of course, jurists have recognised that the law, like other social
phenomena, has a history. But for historical jurisprudence, that history was
not merely the background of the status quo; instead, it was an integral part
of its present State. And, of course, all legal historians have explored the
law’s past. But for historical jurisprudence, legal history was not an end in
itself; instead, it was the principal means through which even present-day law
must be understood.”<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l35 level1 lfo17; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"> </span>The (past) history of a legal system embodies
basic norms which not only do govern but also, because of their historicity,
should govern subsequent developments and which bind the sovereign political
authority itself.</span></li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><o:p> </o:p><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;">2.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></b><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Origins
of the historical school | Why the historical school? </b></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="text-indent: -24px;">· </span>Before the seventeenth century, Western philosophers remained
adherents either of natural law theory, positivism, or an uneasy mixture of the
two. <i>Below is the context for the emergence
of the historical school:</i></span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">The historical school emerged as a reaction against
new legal theories that had occurred with the so-called the </span><i style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Age of Enlightenment</i><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"> or </span><i style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Age of Reason</i><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"> that found expression in
the </span><i style="text-indent: -0.25in;">French Revolution</i><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">, i.e., the
revolt against traditions, among other things. These theories included:</span></span></li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l42 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 56.65pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l21 level1 lfo42; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><!--[if !supportLists]-->-<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span><i>Rationalism</i>
and <i>individualism,</i> and <i>utilitarianism</i> (<i>philosophical level</i>)<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 56.65pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l21 level1 lfo42; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><!--[if !supportLists]-->-<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span><i>Democracy</i>
and <i>public opinion</i> as the source of
governmental legitimacy (<i>political level</i>)
<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 56.65pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l21 level1 lfo42; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><!--[if !supportLists]-->-<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span><i>Primacy of
legislation</i> as a source of law and the priority of human rights over
traditional legal rights and duties (<i>constitutional
and legal levels</i>)<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l42 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"><span> </span></span><span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span><span>· </span><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">The historical school came as a reaction toward </span><i style="text-indent: -0.25in;">natural law</i><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"> and </span><i style="text-indent: -0.25in;">legal positivism</i><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"> (analytical School of jurisprudence/</span><i style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Austinian School</i><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"> - established by </span><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;">John Austin</b><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">). Historical jurisprudence
rejected the notion that law is either a timeless and logical system (natural
law) or simply a command of the sovereign (</span><i style="text-indent: -0.25in;">analytical
jurisprudence/legal positivism</i><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">).</span></span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">· </span><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">The historical School of Jurisprudence focuses
on the formation of law by people through customs and habits and not by some
divine origin or superior authority (God, judges, State and legislators). </span></span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">· </span><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">The eighteenth-century natural law tradition
relied on abstract reason and metaphysical speculation. For instance, natural
law relied on reasoning/sense as the basis of law and believed that certain
principles of universal application could be rationally derived without considering
social, historical and other factors.</span></span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">· </span><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">The historical school was based on the concept
of science, which renounced philosophical speculation and deductive reasoning
from absolutes and which required that knowledge be inductively derived from
the observation of positive data/historical data.</span><span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; text-indent: -0.25in;"> </span></span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; text-indent: -0.25in;"> </span><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">·</span><span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; text-indent: -0.25in;"> </span><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">The historical school attacked the ‘Analytical
positivism’, which constructed a soul-less barren sovereign-made-coercive law
devoid of moral and cultural values.</span></span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; text-indent: -0.25in;"> </span><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">· </span><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">The Historical School opposed the </span><i style="text-indent: -0.25in;">French Revolution</i><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"> because it was a
product of </span><i style="text-indent: -0.25in;">natural law</i><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"> philosophy,
which advocated for liberty, equality and fraternity of men and nations.</span></span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">The historical school was partly a result of the
</span><i style="text-indent: -0.25in;">surge of nationalism</i><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"> at the end of
the eighteenth century.</span></span></li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l42 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l34 level1 lfo40; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><!--[if !supportLists]-->-<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span><b>Napoleon Bonaparte</b>
had conquered many parts of German States and had imposed <i>Napoleon Code</i> - the French system on alien Germans. Thus, French
Legal System based on French Legal History and requirement was irritating and
inconvenient to German people, whose law and legal system was different from
that of the French. The slogan ‘<i>Germany
for the Germans</i>’ became popular against foreign domination. It gave the German
people a sense of unity and identity for legal and political unification.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l34 level1 lfo40; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><!--[if !supportLists]-->-<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Hence, a movement grew up which was romantic,
irrational and strongly nationalistic and which found its expression in art,
literature, history, political theory and law. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l42 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul style="text-align: left;"><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"> </span>The historical school emerged to partly embrace <b>Darwin’s</b> <i>evolutionary theory</i> in the “<i>Origin
of Species</i>”, which altered the character of scientific speculation during
that period.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">As it ultimately developed, the historical school
of jurisprudence viewed the law as an </span><i style="text-indent: -0.25in;">evolutionary
process</i><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">. It essentially adopted an </span><i style="text-indent: -0.25in;">evolutionary
perspective</i><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"> to unravel the history of particular legal institutions or
dissect the nature of law itself.</span></span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"> Some of </span><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Friedrich
Carl von Savigny’s</b><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"> successors embraced an evolutionary understanding of law
more openly, especially in the closing decades of the nineteenth century under
the influence of </span><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Charles</b><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"> </span><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Darwin</b><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">.</span></span></li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l41 level1 lfo41; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><o:p> </o:p><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;">3.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></b><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Development of the historical school in
continental Europe and America</b></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Historical
jurisprudence was not monolithic but came in a variety of forms. From its first
appearance in Germany, it soon spread to the US and other continental European
countries (Austria, France, Hungary, Italy, and Russia).<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">France<o:p></o:p></span></b></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-bottom: 8.0pt; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; margin: 12pt 0in 8pt 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l28 level1 lfo18; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->In the sixteenth century, most prominently in
France, a historicist school of legal thought started to evolve in its nascent
stage. </span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>The movement held up the ancient <i>Frankish customary law</i> as a model to be
opposed to "foreign" <i>Romanist</i>
and <i>Canonist</i> legal traditions (Roman
Code and Cannon Law). This nationalist historicism was invoked against royal
innovations.</span></li></ul><p></p><div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; margin-top: 12pt; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><i>Frankish customary law,</i> a by-product of
the <i>Francia/franks/Frankish</i> Kingdom
or <i>Frankland</i>, the largest post-Roman Realm
in Western Europe. The franks, Germanic-speaking people/barbaric tribe along
the Rhine River, which invaded the Western Roman Empire in the fifteenth
century. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div><p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><b>England</b><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l28 level1 lfo18; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Traditional historical jurisprudence, which
attempted to discover the nature of the legal institutions produced by
successive stages of social development, is associated with English scholars.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>The turn to history worked its way slowly to
England. Although work by <b>Edward Gibbons</b>,<b> Edmund Burke</b>,<b> </b>and <b>William Jones</b> had
inspired the German turn, it was not until the 1860s that history became a
distinct field of serious inquiry in England.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>Sir Henry
Maine</b>’s <i>Ancient Law</i> initiated the
British turn to history in legal scholarship. </span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>Maine</b>
advocated for historical jurisprudence as an alternative to natural law and
positivism (the dominant schools at the time). </span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>His characterisation of historical change as a
progressive movement from <i>“status to
contract</i>” would significantly influence historical legal thought and
history more generally.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>To him, the course of legal history could be
explained as progress from “<i>status to
contract</i>”.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Supporters of absolute monarchy invoked ancient
English traditions and precedents to support their royalist position in the sixteenth
century.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>In the seventeenth century, some English common
lawyers had a strong conviction that the primary source of the validity of law -
including its moral and political validity - is its historical character, its
source in the customs and traditions of the community whose law it is. </span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>This conviction was forcefully expressed by <b>Sir Edward Coke</b> (1552-1634) in the century's
first decades. It was developed further by <b>Coke's</b>
protégé, <b>John Selden</b> (1584-1654). </span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>In the middle and later decades, <b>Sir Matthew Hale</b> (1609-1676), who
consciously built on the work of both <b>Coke</b>
and <b>Selden</b>, presented a systematic
theory of the historical character of law and integrated that theory with both
natural law theory and positivism.'</span></li></ul><p></p><div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">In the <i>seventeenth</i> century, leading English
jurists introduced a new philosophy of law into the Western legal tradition. Both
competed with and complemented the two major schools of legal philosophy that
had opposed each other in earlier centuries, namely, natural law theory and
legal positivism. The new philosophy eventually came to be refined in Germany
and called historical jurisprudence. It predominated in some countries of
Europe (continental Europe) and the United States in the <i>late</i> <i>nineteenth</i> and <i>early twentieth</i> centuries.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><b>Germany</b>:<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: 8.0pt; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; margin: 12pt 0in 8pt 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l42 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Despite the Frenchmen and Englishmen’s earlier
efforts to defend the old order and position law in the historical context, the
founding of the ‘historical school’ is credited to <b>Friedrich Carl von Savigny</b>. </span></li></ul><p></p><div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; margin-left: 0.25in; margin-right: 0in; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt;">
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; margin-left: 0in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">The historical school was also
influenced by <b>Johann Gottfried Herder</b>
(1744-1803) and the romantic notions of folk culture, by the emphasis on
tradition in the work of <b>Edmund Burke</b>
by the stress on historical continuity in the work of <b>Gustav Hugo</b> (1764-1844), and by the <b>Hegelian</b> conception of spirit.
<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: 8.0pt; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; margin: 12pt 0in 8pt 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l42 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Even though <b>Savigny</b>
did not cite Englishmen such as <b>Burke</b>
in his scholarly writings, he was undoubtedly influenced by their political
philosophy, which was well-known and greatly appreciated in Germany at the
time.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Like <b>Burke</b>,
<b>Savigny</b> fought the new rationalism
that located the source of law in public opinion and the will of the
legislature. </span></li></ul><p></p><div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; margin-left: 0.25in; margin-right: 0in; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt;">
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; margin-left: 0in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><b>Burke</b>
emphasised the older Germanic (<i>Germanische</i>)
tradition of popular participation in law-making and adjudication and the more
modem German (<i>Deutsche</i>) tradition of
professional scholarly interpretation and systematisation of the jus commune.
He also stressed the (European) common law, which had been developed over the
centuries by learned jurists based on the ancient texts of the Roman law of
Justinian and the canon law of the Church.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Below is the context for the development of
the historical School in Germany:<o:p></o:p></span></i></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l42 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>In the 1800s, Germany was not unified and had 41
states, each of which had a different law.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span style="line-height: 107%;">Napoleon Bonaparte</span></b><span style="line-height: 107%;"> (Napoleon I) conquered many of the
German states and sought to enforce the <i>French
Civil</i> <i>Code</i> in these states. </span></span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span style="line-height: 107%;">Napoleon I</span></b><span style="line-height: 107%;"> was defeated in 1813, and the <i>French Civil Code</i> was seen as part of
the conqueror’s instruments. Thus, many German States started to reject the <i>French Civil Code</i> and evolve a law more
suited to Germany. </span></span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 107%;">The
wave of <i>research universities</i> and the
sense of <i>nationalism</i> became
predominant, giving rise to the urge for legal and political unification. </span></span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 107%;">In
1814, <b>Professor</b> </span><b>Anton Friedrich Justus Thibaut </b>(a
natural law jurist at Heidelberg University) started producing pamphlets. </span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>He attempted to provide a single code for the
German nation on the model of the <i>French Civil
Code</i>.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span style="line-height: 107%;">Thibaut</span></b><span style="line-height: 107%;"> published a plan for a single
unifying Code to be prepared by an interstate committee of jurists and
practitioners. <b>Thibaut’s</b> proposal
was promoted by the almost bewildering State of the law in Germany in the early
nineteenth century. </span></span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 107%;">In
the Post-Napoleon era, the French Civil Code had been voluntarily or involuntarily
adopted in some states. Roman law had taken such deep roots in other states
that it was accepted as the common law. In the absence of any express enactment
in addition to that common law, German imperial statutes and customary law
prevailed. </span></span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 107%;">There
was no uniform body of law which applied to all German states. <b>Thibaut,</b> therefore, advocated the
adoption of a uniform Code for Germany that could replace the diverse systems
of laws and which could incorporate the revived Roman doctrines as also native
customs.</span></span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>Savigny’s</b>
‘vocation’ was an answer to this proposal of <b>Thibaut’s</b> plan of codifying the law and customs of German people
who were not politically united as a nation. <b>Savigny</b> vehemently opposed <b>Thibaut’s</b>
plan.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>As noted earlier, given the <i>patriotic</i> and <i>nationalistic
sentiments</i>, the turn to history (the historical school) began in Germany partly
as a response to the <i>rationalism</i> and <i>universalism</i> of the <i>French Enlightenment</i>. </span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Over the first half of the nineteenth century,
German historical science moved across the channel to England, then to the US.
The three jurisdictions had an important impact on the production of the new
legal history and the emergence of historical jurisprudence.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>The chief characteristics of the German historical
school included “<i>the organic development
of law, the continuity of national traditions, parallels between law and
language and the defect of statutes</i>”.</span></li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">United States:</span></b></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><b> </b><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">The historical turn in the United States </span><i style="text-indent: -0.25in;">combined the experiences of both England and
Germany</i><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">.</span></span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Like in Germany, it was supported by the <i>rise of research universities</i>, which
enabled a “<i>scientific</i>” approach to
history that supplanted the patrician amateurs who had been responsible for
most of the history written in the United States before the <b>American Civil War</b>. </span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>The <i>new
American research universities were often based on German models,</i> and <i>many faculty members had been trained in
German universities</i>.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>The American turn began in the 1870s with the
work of <b>Henry Adams</b>, who had studied
law in Germany. While Adams was the “founder” of modern legal history, his work
influenced jurisprudence, especially that of <b>Oliver Wendell Holmes</b>, <b>James
Bradley Thayer</b>, and <b>Melville Madison
Bigelow</b>. <b>Adams’</b> work also
influenced <b>Frederic Maitland</b>’s widely
celebrated work on <i>English legal history</i>.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>Adams</b>
grew frustrated about whether history offered anything instructive for law; he
certainly did not see any principles springing out of legal history like <b>Maine</b>’s progression “from status to
contract.”</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>Melville
Madison Bigelow </b>was another scholar who produced important works on legal
history but later questioned history’s utility for jurisprudence. Unlike <b>Adams</b>, who traced the origins of
American legal principles to the Saxons, <b>Bigelow</b>
traced them to the Normans, pointing particularly to the Domesday Book
(1085–1086) as the most significant Norman work on law.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>Bigelow </b>re-emphasised
the value of history, endorsing it chiefly “<i>to
evaluate whether or not survivals of past law served useful functions in the
present</i>”.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>Oliver
Wendell Holmes</b>’<i> The Common Law</i>,
which was published five years after <b>Adams’</b>
work, attempted a systematic historical jurisprudence.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>For <b>Holmes</b>,
history was a tool of legal analysis specifically directed towards the
development of jurisprudence; “<i>he
subordinated historical explanation to legal analysis.</i>”</span></li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: 8.0pt; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; margin: 12pt 0in 8pt 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l33 level1 lfo24; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: 8.0pt; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; margin: 12pt 0in 8pt 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l33 level1 lfo24; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;">4.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></b><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Key ideas of the historical school</b></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l7 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><b> </b></span><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;"> </b><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Law develops with society and dies with society.</span></span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Law changes over time and differs from one
society to another, i.e., it rejects the <i>universality</i>
of laws and favours legal <i>relativism</i>.
</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>The people formulate law and for the people, which
means that the law should be according to the changing needs of the people (people-oriented/bottom-up
as opposed to top-down approach).</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>It views law as a legacy of the past and a product
of customs, traditions and beliefs prevalent in different communities.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Custom is the most important source of law, <i>i.e.,</i> the basic law source is the
people's habits and customs that change according to their needs and
requirements.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>A nation's customary law is its truly living law,
and the task of jurisprudence is to uncover this law and describe in historical
studies its social provenience.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>It opposes the codification of laws (top-down
legislation). </span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->Law is "found" by the jurist and not
"made" by the State or its organs. </span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Law is a national or folk and not a political
phenomenon, <i>i.e.,</i> it is a social and
not an individual production.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->Only history could establish a true cognition of
the human condition.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>It identifies law with the <i>consciousness</i> or <i>spirit</i>
of a specific people. Law evolved as the “<i>national
spirit of the people</i>” or is grounded in the form of <i>popular consciousness</i> called the <i>Volksgeist</i>.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Law reflects the society in which it exists by
reflecting widely shared norms or the views and interests (primarily or
exclusively) of the most powerful groups within that society.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>This school rejects the ideas of the formation
of law by judges and the origin from some divine relevance (natural law).</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Laws are the expression of the convictions of
the people in the same manner as language, customs and practices. In other
words, it is not an abstract set of rules imposed on society but has deep roots
in social and economic factors and the attitudes of its past and present
members of society.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Law is a historical necessity and not an expression
of will or reason; therefore, it cannot be <i>transplanted</i>
or <i>imported</i>. It views law as a
biological growth, an evolutionary phenomenon and not an arbitrary, fanciful,
artificial creation or mechanical device.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>It rejects the notion of law as the State or
sovereign’s command.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Judges must consider history, tradition, and
custom when deciding on a legal dispute.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Law derives its legitimacy and authority from
standards that have withstood the test of time.</span></li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo19; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></p><div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; margin-left: 0.5in; margin-right: 0in; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt;">
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; margin-left: 0in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><b>Key takeaways</b>
(i) law cannot be universal; (ii) law cannot be uniform; (iii) law cannot be
isolated from social and historical factors.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><b><br /></b></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><b> </b><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;">5.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></b><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Historical
school distinguished from </b><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">n</span><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;">atural
law and positivist schools of jurisprudence, and legal history</b></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Generally, <i>historical jurisprudence</i> takes an <i>empirical angle</i> (historical data/statistics/verifiable
by observation or experience) on the law as opposed to:<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 38.25pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo43; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>The <i>"normative"
angle of natural law theory</i> (descriptive standard/pure logic/theoretical or
unpractical/deductive reasoning/value position); and </span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>The <i>"conceptual
or analytical" angle of legal positivism</i> (doctrinal/ideas or concepts
formed in mind). </span></li></ul><p></p><div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; margin-left: 22.5pt; margin-right: 0in; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Natural law theory treats
law as the embodiment of rules and concepts of moral principles derived from
reason and conscience. Positivism treats law as a body of rules laid down
("posited") and enforced by the supreme law-making authority, the
sovereign. The former theory views law as rooted primarily in morality ("reason
and conscience"); the latter views law as rooted primarily in politics
("the will of the lawmaker"). Most positivists do not deny that law should
serve moral ends, the ends of justice. Still, they argue that law is a
political instrument, a body of rules manifesting the policies of the
legitimately constituted political authorities.
<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div><p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">In particular:<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Natural law school<o:p></o:p></span></b></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l18 level1 lfo37; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>The historical school challenges natural law/moral
theories that see the law as an expression of principles that are part of man’s
nature and so applicable in any society. </span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>To them, the law is neither a <i>vernunftrecht</i> (<i>rational law</i>) nor <i>universal</i>
but something <i>relative</i> to the people<i>, i.e.,</i> grounded in the form of <i>popular consciousness</i> called the <i>Volksgeist</i>.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>While the historical school look at the law as a
<i>by-product of history</i>, the natural
law school understands the law as something that could be discovered by <i>rational deduction</i> from the nature of
man.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Unlike the natural school of law, the historical
school rejects the notion that the origin of law is <i>superior authority </i>and has some <i>divine
relevance</i>.</span></li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Positivist School<o:p></o:p></span></b></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l37 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>The historical school opposes positivist/political
theories that see the law as an expression of the will of those holding
political power or an arbitrary grouping of regulations laid down by some
authority. </span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>To them, laws are the expression of the
convictions of the people in the same manner as language, customs and
practices.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Although some laws stem from regulations by the
authorities, more commonly, laws evolve organically over time without
interference from the authorities. The ever-changing practical needs of the
people play a vital role in this continual organic development.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Lawyers ascertain the people's will in making,
interpreting and enforcing the law. Thus, lawyers embody the popular will. </span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·</span>In the historical school, the foundation of law
is social pressure. The rule of law is based on political pressure in the
analytical or positivist school.</span></li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Legal history <o:p></o:p></span></b></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l37 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Historical jurisprudence and legal history <i>differ only in degree and not in kind</i>.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Legal history is not historical jurisprudence
(two sides of a coin).</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>Savigny’s</b>
objective was not the pursuit of ‘legal history’, but establishing a
‘historical legal science’.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>According to <b>Reimann</b>, historical jurisprudence existed between the 1880s and
World War I; thus, by 1920, it became legal history.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>To <b>Roscoe
Pound</b>, legal history is the discovery and exposition of the actual development
course of a particular legal system or doctrine in a particular system.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Legal history <i>details or records past events</i> that occurred in specific legal
systems. In contrast, historical jurisprudence <i>operates at a higher level of generality</i>, formulating broadly
applicable claims about law<i> </i>(<i>philosophises or hypothesises the past</i>)
– make sense of the legal history/historical records.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Legal history merely deals with the <i>factual narration</i> of the development of
law and various legal institutions of a community in a particular order. In
contrast, historical jurisprudence <i>examines
the manner, circumstances and factors responsible for the growth of law. It
takes account of the social forces </i>that significantly operate in the evolution
of law.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·</span>Legal history <i>apprehends the nature or an idea of any legal institution or system of
institutions and determination of the actual circumstances of the development</i>.
On the other hand, historical jurisprudence <i>involves
the aid of legal history to abstract the idea rather than the actual matter of
fact surrounding</i> it (<i>use/apply legal
history to understand legal thoughts</i>).</span></li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l37 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><b> </b><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;">6.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></b><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Key historical Jurisprudents</b></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><b> </b><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;">(a)<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></b><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;">French jurists </b></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Charles-Louis Montesquieu (1689-1755)<o:p></o:p></span></b></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l26 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>He was a Judge, Historian, and Philosopher.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>He laid the foundation of a historical school in
France</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>He describes his idea about the historical
approach in his book “<i>The Spirits of Laws</i>”</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>He has frequently been described as the
forerunner of the historical school, i.e., the first jurist to adopt the
historical method of understanding the legal institution. Thus, the law must
change according to the changing needs of society.</span></li></ul><p></p><div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; margin-left: 0.25in; margin-right: 0in; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt;">
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; margin-left: 0in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">In The<b> Spirit of the Laws (1748), Montesquieu</b> first showed the connection
between law and the circumstances of society. He accepted the natural lawyers´
view that law must reflect the nature of things but insisted that the nature of
things is not the same in every society. Rather law reflects the spirit of each
society, which is an amalgam of various components, some physical, such as its
climate and the qualities of its land, and some moral, such as religion and
social customs. He recognised that some societies were more developed than
others and that their laws had to be more sophisticated, but he imposed no
scheme of historical progression on his material.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l26 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>He suggests that laws are social phenomena that
vary in countries depending on their history, national spirit, and other
factors.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>He asserted that law matches surrounding
circumstances, including climate, geography, local customs, terrain, quality of
soil, mode of cultivation and food acquisition, occupations, political system,
“the religion of the inhabitants, their inclinations, their wealth, their
number, their commerce, their mores and their manners.”</span></li></ul><p></p><div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; margin-left: 0.25in; margin-right: 0in; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt;">
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; margin-left: 0in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">No one best form of State or
constitution exists: no law is good or bad in the abstract. Every civil and
political law must be considered in its relation to the environment, and by
adapting to that environment, its excellence must be judged.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l26 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Law should be adopted to suit the people for
whom they are framed, keeping in view the degree of liberty the constitution
desires to grant to its people.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>To him, there is nothing like good or bad in
law, as it depends on the prevailing political and social conditions and
environment in the society.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>He opposed natural law; he laid the foundation
of comparative and sociological jurisprudence.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>William Blackstone</b>
learned from <b>Montesquieu</b> that laws
differ from one society to another because these have different natures. Each
development may be equally natural as they develop according to their climates,
geographies, and historical pasts. <b>Robert
Willman</b> writes:</span></li></ul><p></p><div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; margin-left: 49.5pt; margin-right: 0in; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt;">
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; margin-left: 0in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">“What is distinctive and important in
Blackstone's method is a view of the law which embeds it firmly in the social
and political conditions of its time, which sees law responding to the changing
needs and circumstances of the social environment, and which considers the
process and institutions of legal change to be as much a part of "the
law" as specific substantive doctrines, procedures, and remedies. Law is
presented by <b>Blackstone,</b> not as a
speculative.”<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l26 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>Montesquieu's</b>
argument did not deny that there were universal truths found in natural law
theory.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>He asserted that applying these universal
principles might need to be different where the physical or social
circumstances differ.</span></li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><o:p> </o:p><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;">(b)<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></b><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;">The German historical school</b></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">The German
Historical School of Jurisprudence is <i>an
intellectual movement</i> studying German law. It was divided into <i>Romanists</i> (looked at the classical Roman
sources) and <i>Germanists</i> (focused on
indigenous law). <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l26 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><i>Romanists</i>
contended that the <i>Volksgeist</i> springs
from the reception of the Roman law (<i>e.g.,</i>
Friedrich Carl von Savigny, Georg Friedrich Puchta and Bernhard Windscheid). This
approach revolved around ‘<i>Romanticism’</i>
notions and conceived law as the organic expression of national consciousness (<i>Volksgeist</i>).</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><i>Germanists</i>
saw medieval German law as the expression of the German <i>Volksgeist</i> (<i>e.g.,</i> Karl
Friedrich Eichhorn, Jakob Grimm, Georg Beseler, Otto von Gierke). </span></li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><b>Friedrich Carl von Savigny (1779–1861)</b> <i> </i><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>He is regarded as a father of the Historical School.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Professor of Roman law at the University of Landshut
in Bavaria and the University of Berlin</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>On different occasions, he served as a Member of
the Prussian Privy Council, the Berlin Court of Appeal and Cassation for the
Rhine Provinces, the Commission for Revising the Prussian code and the Head of the
Department for Revision of Statutes</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>Savigny's</b>
main jurisprudential works were <i>Of the
Vocation of Our Age for Legislation and Jurisprudence; System of Modern Roman
Law; Miscellaneous Writings; History of Roman Law in the Middle Ages; and Journal
of Historical Jurisprudence.<o:p></o:p></i></span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->His works focused on the <i>monistic</i> approach to law (as opposed to legal <i>pluralism</i>). </span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>He traced the development of law as an <i>evolutionary</i> process much before <b>Charles Darwin</b> gave this theory of
evolution in the field of biological sciences in 1861 (<i>The Origin of Species</i>). </span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>In his legal studies of Roman property rights,<b> Savigny </b>was greatly influenced by <b>Bartold-Georg Niebuhr </b>(German
historian), whose <i>History of Rome</i> was
first published in three-volume form in 1828-32.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>His doctrines regarding law were represented in
his famous pamphlet ‘<i>Of the Vocation of
Our Age for Legislation and Jurisprudence 1814.</i>’</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>The ‘vocation’ appeared at a critical moment in
the history of the German State – the fate of Germany was still uncertain being
decided at the Vienna Congress of 1815.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>There was uncertainty in Germany about the German
State with its legal diversities and the problem of political unification. These
and other factors created a chain of reactions in the minds of German Legal philosophers,
resulting in the founding of the historical school.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>When <b>Savigny</b>
began his work, Germany was beginning to recover from the trauma of the French
Revolution and the Napoleonic wars and achieve political unity.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>He immediately persuaded German legal scholars
to abandon their precipitate embrace of the Napoleonic Code (French Law) and
explore their law's medieval and Roman roots. </span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>He became prominent in the struggle opposing the
codification of the law in Germany.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Law is a product of the general consciousness of
the people and a manifestation of their spirit.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Origin of law lies in the popular spirit of the
people, which he termed as <i>Volksgeist</i></span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>He claimed that law arises from the
"spirit" of the people/mind of the people (<i>i.e.,</i> <i>Volksgeist</i>). For
that reason, it is a serious error to impose a legal code from another country
on a community.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>Savigny’s</b>
<i>Volksgeist</i> presupposes that the <i>law is the product of the general
consciousness of the people or will</i>. </span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>The concept of <i>Volksgeist</i> served as a warning against hasty legislation and
introduced abstract revolutionary ideas on the legal system unless they supported
the people's general will.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Preached about the necessity of understanding
the history of law before it was reformed</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Called for conforming the law to people’s needs.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>No system of law, however theoretically good,
could be successfully imposed upon a people who had not, by its experience,
become prepared for it.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Law is developed first by custom and popular
belief, then by juristic activity-everywhere, therefore, by internal, silently
operating powers, not by the arbitrary will of a legislator.</span></li></ul><p></p><div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; margin-left: 0.25in; margin-right: 0in; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt;">
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; margin-left: 0in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Law is a product of times the germ of
which, like the germ of State, exists like men as being made for society and
which develops from this germ various forms, according to the environing the
influences which play upon it.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·</span>He believed that the law could not be borrowed
from outside. Thus, the main source of law is the consciousness of the people.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>He believed that the law of the State grows with
the strengthening of the state nationality and law dies or fades away when
nationality loosens its strength in the State.</span></li></ul><p></p><div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; margin-left: 0.25in; margin-right: 0in; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt;">
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; margin-left: 0in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><b>Savigny</b>´s
followers in the German Historical School accepted the organic and inevitable
connection between the special character of a people and its language and law.
For them, the spirit of a particular people (<i>Volksgeist</i>) was more than <b>Montesquieu</b>´s
spirit. The latter comprised several quantifiable components.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><i>Law
develops like a language</i> - <b>Savigny</b>
focused that the law has a national character. It develops like any language
and binds people into one thread through their common faiths, beliefs, and
convictions. </span></li></ul><p></p><div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; margin-left: 49.5pt; margin-right: 0in; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt;">
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; margin-left: 0in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><b>Summary</b>:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><!--[if !supportLists]-->-<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Law is like language, which eventually grows (scheme
of legal evolution).<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><!--[if !supportLists]-->-<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Law cannot be of universal validity nor constructed
based on certain rational or eternal principles.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><!--[if !supportLists]-->-<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Law is found or discovered, not made. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><!--[if !supportLists]-->-<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Law is founded based on the people's
consciousness, customs and beliefs. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><!--[if !supportLists]-->-<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Law has an unconscious natural growth; it is
neither found nor artificially made (it cannot be made artificially like the
invention of an object)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><!--[if !supportLists]-->-<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>The foundation of law is to be found in <i>Volksgeist,</i> which means people's
consciousness or will and consists of tradition, customs, habits, practices and
beliefs of the people.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><!--[if !supportLists]-->-<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Since law should always conform to popular consciousness,
custom precedes legislation and is superior to it.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><!--[if !supportLists]-->-<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Law is not universal, but like linguistic
nature, it differs with people, time and community needs.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>When a law is made without considering the past
historical culture and tradition of the community is likely to create more
confusion rather than solving the problem because the law is not an artificial,
lifeless mechanical device.</span></li></ul><p></p><div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; margin-left: 0.25in; margin-right: 0in; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt;">
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; margin-left: 0in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Law goes through three periods: <i>growth/infancy, maturity </i>and<i> decline</i>. In the <i>first period</i>, it is manifested directly in the practices of the
people. As society <i>grows</i>, some parts
of law become more technical and are adapted by expert jurists, acting as
delegates of the people. Whether it is based on custom or juristic discussion,
it is developed not by legislation but through silent forces within itself. In
its <i>infancy</i>, it is not technical
enough for legislation, and in its <i>decline</i>,
it is not worthy of codification. The only suitable period for codification
would be the period of <i>maturity</i>. With
the maximum participation of the people and juristic science at its zenith, the
legislation would be an unnecessary intrusion.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Georg Fredrick Puchta (1798-1856)<o:p></o:p></span></b></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>He was <b>Savigny</b>
disciple/follower who <i>improved his ideas</i>
- <i>making them more logical.</i></span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>Puchta</b>
was not only a disciple of <b>Savigny</b> but
also a great jurist of the historical school.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>He started with human beings' evolution and
traced the law's development since that period.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>According to him, the idea of the law came due
to the conflict of interests between the individual and the general will. That
automatically forms the State, which delimits the sphere of the individual and
develops into a tangible and workable system.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>His ideas mainly focused on when conflict arises
between general/common will and individual will or desires (self-interest). </span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>The State will interfere and control the rule if
there is a conflict between general and individual will or overlaps.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Hence, the State and the individual are the
sources of the law because neither the people nor the State alone can make and
formulate laws.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>His investigation of the popular origin of law
convinced him that customary law was the most genuine expression of the common
conviction of the people and, for this reason, far superior to legislation. </span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>He considered explicit legislation useful only
insofar as it embodied the prevailing national customs and usages.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>The contribution of <b>Puchta</b> lies in the fact that he refined <b>Savigny</b>’s views and gave twofold aspects of human will and the origin
of the State.</span></li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Joseph Kohler (1849-1919)<o:p></o:p></span></b></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>He proposed a theory of law that contains <i>components of a sociological character</i>
but which may also be explained as an attempt to revive some of <b>Hegel</b>’s ideas </span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>He claimed that human activity was cultural and
that man’s task was “to create and develop a new abundance of forms which shall
be as a second creation, in juxtaposition to divine creation.”</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Law plays an important part in the evolution of
the cultural life of mankind by taking care that existing values are protected
and new ones furthered.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Each form of civilisation must find the law
which best suits its purposes and aims. </span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Law must adapt itself to the constantly changing
conditions of civilisation, and it is the duty of society, from time to time,
to shape the law in conformity to new conditions.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>He conceded to <b>Hegel</b>’s idea of universal civilisation but did not agree with the
view that there is an eternal law of a universal body of legal institutions
uniformly suited to all societies.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>He rejected eternal or natural law</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>He emphasised that human society is ever-changing
(progressing) and law is a means to respond favourably to these changes.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>He advocated a synthesis and reconciliation of <i>individualism</i> and <i>collectivism</i> in legal control.</span></li></ul><p></p><div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; margin-left: 0.25in; margin-right: 0in; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt;">
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">The individual should develop
independently, but the tremendous advantage of collectivism should not,
therefore, be lost.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>He pointed out that social cohesion is also
necessary so that humanity may not fall apart and become a collection of
individuals and the community to lose control over its members.</span></li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><o:p> </o:p>Other thinkers: <i>Gustav von Hugo,
Karl Friedrich Eichhorn, Rudolph von Sohm, Jakob Grimm, Georg Beseler, and Otto
von Gierke</i></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><o:p> </o:p><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;">(c)<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></b><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Anglo-American historical school </b></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><o:p> </o:p><b style="text-indent: -0.5in;">i.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></b><b style="text-indent: -0.5in;">England</b><span style="text-indent: -0.5in;">:</span></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 121.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l24 level1 lfo31; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">In England,
historical jurisprudence began <i>half a century
later than in Germany</i>. While the German model heavily influenced the
English movement, it differed in several respects. Most importantly, <i>English historical jurisprudence was not
based on a coherent theory of legal science</i>. <i>It rather followed the particular inclinations of individual scholars.</i>
These scholars did not form a proper ‘school.’ They were connected simply by
their interest in the historical dimension of law. In addition, they formed a
much smaller group than in Germany. Never gaining mainstream status, they
remained a distinct, though influential, minority in an environment dominated
by the analytical school. Below are key English historical jurisprudents: <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Edmund Burke (1729-1797)<o:p></o:p></span></b></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>A lawyer and statesman.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>He considered the <i>evolution of law as an organic process</i> and an <i>expression of common beliefs, faiths and practices </i>of the community.</span></li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><b>Note</b>: organic process – changing
gradually from a simple to a more complex level/form. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>In his book “<i>Reflections
on the Revolution in France</i>”, published in 1790, he highlighted the
importance of customs and traditions in the growth of law. </span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>He upheld the significance of English customs,
habits and religion in the evolution of law and denounced the <i>French revolution</i> for its catastrophic
consequences.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>He used the metaphor of organic growth to
describe Britain's unwritten constitution.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>He<b> </b>defended
the historical dimension of politics and law against the new rationalism and
individualism, and utilitarianism emphasised the historical roots and the
historical tasks of the aristocracy, of public spirit. The traditional values
embodied in the common law. </span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·</span>He defended an old order and provided a basis
for what became in the nineteenth century "the historical school" of
legal philosophy, in which the historical jurisprudence that had originated
with <b>Coke</b> and <b>Selden</b> and <b>Hale</b> (among others)
became separated from the political and moral theories - positivism and natural
law - with which they had originally been integrated.</span></li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Sir Henry Sumner Maine (1822–1888) <o:p></o:p></span></b></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Jurist/legal scholar, historian, anthropologist
and first Professor of Comparative Jurisprudence at Oxford (1869) and Professor
of International Law at Cambridge (1887).</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>Maine's</b>
chief jurisprudential works were <i>Ancient
Law, its Connections with the Early History of Society and its Relation to
Modern Ideas</i>; <i>Village Communities in
the East and West</i>; <i>Lectures on the
Early History of Institutions: </i>and<i> Dissertations
on Early Law and Custom.</i></span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>He was a law member of the Council of the Governor–General
of India (1861 – 1869) and was largely responsible for codifying Indian law.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>Savigny’s</b>
views of historical school were carried forward in England by <b>Maine</b>.</span></li></ul><p></p><div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; margin-left: 0.25in; margin-right: 0in; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt;">
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; margin-left: 0in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><b>Maine</b>
was concerned with providing a theory which would explain the law of
'progressive´ societies (principally ancient Rome and England) and act as a
counterweight to the positivism of <b>Bentham</b>
and <b>Austin</b>, which held that all true
law was the product of legislation by a political sovereign. He was equally
concerned with refuting those who based law on a priori abstractions, such as
the law of nature and sought to explain the law, which was both empirical and
universally true in the sense that natural science was true.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>He incorporated the best things in the theories
of <b>Savigny</b> and <b>Montesquieu</b> and avoided abstract and unreal Romanticism.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>Maine</b>
essentially presented a history of various basic legal institutions, such as
wills and succession, property, contract, delict and crime, emphasising their
emergence in antiquity (ancient times/before the Middle Ages).</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>He emphasised the study of other societies and
legal systems</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Unlike <b>Savigny</b>,
<b>Maine</b> <i>favoured legislation and codification of law</i>.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>Maine</b>
saw in law more than a people's customs; he observed and considered Parliament's
creative and reforming work, and so he was led to recognise legislation as an
instrument of legal growth.</span></li></ul><p></p><div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; margin-left: 0.25in; margin-right: 0in; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt;">
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; margin-left: 0in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">To him, by viewing all law as
legislation, <b>Bentham</b> and his
followers obscured the nature of legal change. As <b>Maine</b> insisted, the farther back in time we go, the farther we are
removed from the <b>Benthamite</b> notion
that law is made expressly by legislation. Rather it evolves imperceptibly.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·</span>Like <b>Savigny</b>,
<b>Maine</b> offered the alternative of a
legal science grounded in <i>historical data</i>.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·</span>He departed radically from <b>Savigny's</b> monistic approach to law and its sources of legal
pluralism. </span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·</span>He found that equity and legal fiction (took
into account diverse legal systems) played creative roles in the common law</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·</span>He differed from <b>Savigny</b> in believing that custom might historically follow/embrace
an act of judgment so the jurist could be seen to have had a creative role in
making the law, even though he claimed only to have found it.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·</span>He asserted, or at least assumed, that there
were set patterns of historical change that all societies went through.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·</span><b>Maine</b>
rejected the natural law, rationalistic, and a priori approaches to the nature
of law.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·</span>He saw a people's law as compounded of opinions,
beliefs, and superstitions produced by institutions and human nature as they
affected one another.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·</span>He suggested that similar stages of social
development may be correlated with similar stages of legal development in
different nations.</span></li></ul><p></p><div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; margin-left: 49.5pt; margin-right: 0in; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Four stages of the
development of the law - Stage one: the laws are made and enforced under the commands
of the ruler, who is God’s representative on earth; Stage two: a ruler’s
commands become customary law; State three: the ruler is superseded by a
minority who obtain control over the law (e.g., Magna Carta, Senate, Priests,
House of Lords); Stage four: the law is codified and promulgated.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo29; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·</span>Unlike<b>
Savigny</b>, he emphasised progressive evolution from archaic (and collective)
to civilised (and individualistic) conceptions of law, especially in his most
famous phrase, ‘<i>from Status to Contract</i>’.</span></li></ul><p></p><div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; margin-left: 0.25in; margin-right: 0in; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt;">
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><b>Maine’s</b> account of the law of the earliest period of society starts
with divinely inspired kings handing down isolated judgments, or <i>'themistes</i>´. Later they lose their sacred
power and are replaced by a small group of aristocrats who have a monopoly of
knowledge of the traditional customs. They abuse their power, and popular
agitation demands the recording of the customs in <i>'Ancient Codes</i>´. This is a generalisation of what happened in Rome
when the monarchy gave way to the Republic and the plebeians demanded the
enactment of the <b>Twelve Tables</b>.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><b> </b><b>James Bryce
(1838–1922)</b></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Like </span><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Maine</b><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">,
he focused on </span><i style="text-indent: -0.25in;">antiquity</i><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">, especially
Roman law.</span></span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>He provided more direct comparisons between ‘the
history and law of Rome and the history and law of England.</span></li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo29; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></p><div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; margin-left: 0.25in; margin-right: 0in; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt;">
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><b>Bryce</b> developed the comparative method. For him, the law of any
society was always a compromise between tradition and convenience. The study of
similarities and differences in different legal systems can lead to the
identification of frequently recurring phenomena, which can be treated as
universals thus, in turn, elucidating the nature of law in general.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo29; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·</span>He was interested primarily in constitutional
and political history rather than in the institutions of private law; thus, he
saw strong parallels between the Roman and the British empires.</span></li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><b> </b><b>Frederic
William Maitland (1850–1906)</b></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l40 level1 lfo30; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>He left <b>Maine</b>’s and <b>Bryce</b>’s broadly generalising
and somewhat amateurish approaches behind and turned to English legal history
proper.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>Maitland</b>
dug more deeply into the indigenous medieval sources than anyone before him. </span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>His writing, <i>The
History of English Law before the Time of Edward I</i>, became the definitive
work on the origins and development of medieval English law. </span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·</span>Despite his early death, he professionalised and
pushed English legal historiography to a new height.</span></li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"> </span></o:p><b><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Paul
Vinogradoff (1854-1925)</span></b></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l40 level1 lfo30; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><o:p><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"> </span></o:p><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; text-indent: -0.25in;">·</span><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large; text-indent: -0.25in;">He studied in Berlin, Germany, and his works
carried English legal historiography into the twentieth century.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>He focused not only on the history and
institutions of the Common Law but also on the social conditions in medieval
England. </span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>A distinct feature of this English tradition was
its comparative dimension. </span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>As opposed to <b>Savigny’s</b> idea of a specific national ‘<i>Volksgeist’</i>, he considered legal systems more broadly and in
comparison with each other. </span></li></ul><p></p><div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; margin-left: 0.25in; margin-right: 0in; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt;">
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><b>Vinogradoff</b> more ambitiously extrapolated from the history of
European societies six stages of legal progress, from <i>totemistic</i> <i>law</i> through
medieval law, marked by the tension between feudal and canon law, to
individualistic jurisprudence and finally socialist jurisprudence.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l40 level1 lfo30; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·</span>Despite concentrating largely on indigenous
legal history, it also looked across national boundaries. This tendency was
most pronounced with <b>Maine</b> and <b>Bryce,</b> who operated as jurists in a multicultural
and multi-jurisdictional empire. </span></li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><o:p> </o:p>Other thinkers: <i>Sir
Edward Coke, John Selden, Sir Matthew Hale, William Blackstone, and Sir
Frederick Pollock.</i></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><o:p> </o:p><b style="text-indent: -0.5in;">ii.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></b><b style="text-indent: -0.5in;">United
States</b></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">On the other hand, the American historical school <i>combined elements of its German and English
counterparts</i>, thus occupying a middle ground between these two. Key aspects
of the American historical school:<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l25 level1 lfo33; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>The mainstream American historical jurisprudence
began with the publication of <b>Henry
Baxter Adams’</b> seminal collection of Essays in <i>Anglo-Saxon Law</i> (1876). <b>Adams</b>
studied in Germany</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>Oliver
Wendell Holmes</b> acquired the most lasting fame, especially as the author of
his (only) book, <i>The Common Law</i>
(1881), which is still considered a classic of American jurisprudence.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>The most distinctive feature of American
historical jurisprudence was its <i>emphasis
on law as custom</i>, which in some instances took on a normative dimension
with important political implications.</span></li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"> </span></b></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;">7.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></b><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Relevancy of the historical school today</b></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="text-indent: -24px;">·</span><span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal; text-indent: -24px;"> </span><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Knowledge of legal history has several important
benefits noted by </span><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Savigny</b><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">. Thus, observing
law over time makes apparent its gradual, organic development in connection
with society.</span></span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"> <span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>It shows that <i>law often does not develop in isolation</i> <i>but is affected by external influences</i>, like conquest or
colonisation (<i>e.g.,</i> the importation
of Roman and French laws to Germany or the spread of religion from one land to
another).</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"> </span>Under a broader name like <i>social–legal jurisprudence</i>, theorists have combined the insights of
historical and sociological jurisprudence with contemporary social–legal work
to articulate a theory of the social nature of law.</span></li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo15; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></p><div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; margin-left: 0.25in; margin-right: 0in; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt;">
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; margin-left: 0in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Although much of what would once have
been called historical jurisprudence is now carried on under such labels as
legal anthropology or comparative legal history, there are signs of a revival
of the traditional search for general patterns of legal change, but with more
modest objectives than those of the nineteenth-century theorists.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo15; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"> ·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Historical knowledge helps jurists (lawyers,
judges, scholars) understand the meaning of existing legal rules.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Writers during the Scottish Enlightenment (18-19<sup>th</sup>
Centuries – period of scientific and intellectual accomplishments) first
connected the law's historical development with economic changes.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Historical jurisprudence is often said to be a <i>precursor of the twentieth-century
discipline of sociology of law or social theories</i>.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>Maine</b>
explicitly offered historical jurisprudence as an alternative to natural law
and positivism, the dominant jurisprudential schools at the time. </span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>His characterisation of historical change as a
progressive movement “<i>from status to
contract</i>” would significantly influence historical legal thought and
history more generally.</span></li></ul><p></p><div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; margin-left: 0.25in; margin-right: 0in; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt;">
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; margin-left: 0in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">The notion that a society´s law must
be viewed as closely related to its social and economic circumstances and
should be studied not in isolation but in comparison with the laws of other
societies with similar or different circumstances became permanently rooted in
legal thought and is now commonplace.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo15; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·</span>The twentieth-century modest studies have
successfully related particular kinds of law to particular social
circumstances.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Historical jurisprudence is embodied in
traditional values, the <i>doctrine of
precedent </i>or<i> stare decisis</i>,
common law, the law of equity and customary law or the normative character of
customs, which are bedrocks of many legal systems in the world. It is the
foundation of the English and American doctrines of precedent. Therefore, <i>stare decisis</i> requires a court to
consider history: the history or tradition of analogous cases.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Historical jurisprudence had been "the
dominant school of legal theory in the United States in the late nineteenth and
into the first decades of the twentieth century, both among legal scholars and
the courts</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>It offered an important <i>supplement to natural law approaches and legal positivism</i>. For
instance, what is morally right in one set of circumstances may be morally
wrong in another, <i>e.g.,</i> the LGBTQ
issue (relativism <i>v/s</i> universalism) </span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>History often plays a prominent role in
constitutional petitions. Litigants assert historical evidence <i>(e.g.,</i> Hansards or cabinet paper), which
reveals that the framers of a constitutional provision intended to achieve some
desired goal.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>The Historical School was one of the prevailing
schools in Anglo-American jurisprudence during the nineteenth century. With its
weapons, <b>James Coolidge Carter</b>
(1827-I905) fought off codification and became the <b>Savigny</b><i> </i>of America.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>Max Weber</b>
introduced a typology of <i>legal</i>
authority, contrasting rational authority with <i>traditional</i> and <i>charismatic</i>
types of authority (the notion of legitimacy). He popularised the notion of
'ideal´ model types, in the sense of social constructs, not found in reality
but useful as hypotheses to enable the scholar to highlight similarities and
differences in actual systems.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>Roberto
Unger</b> has emphasised the need to identify the different conceptions of the
law and what may be expected from it that characterises different types of
society. This has enabled him to distinguish various types of society based on
such interpretive explanations. Thus in 'savage´ societies, customary patterns
of interaction among individuals and groups are based on recognising that such
patterns produce reciprocal expectations of conduct. In 'bureaucratic´
societies, the State has become the controlling institution. The dominant
hierarchy begins to take a critical attitude to social customs and seeks to
control them through the publication of express rules, seen as emanations of
the human will. However, the idea that such rules should apply equally to all
members of the society only emerges in societies of the 'legal order´, as
exemplified by the liberal societies of post-feudal Europe. Such societies are
composed of groups with different interests, no one of which is dominant, so the
law is seen as a cohesive force, binding all groups equally.</span></li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><o:p> </o:p><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;">8.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></b><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Criticisms </b><b><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">(mostly toward </span><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Savigny</span><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">)</span></b></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l7 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Georg Friedrich Wilhelm Hegel<o:p></o:p></span></b></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo11; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>Savigny</b>
and Maine’s grand evolutionary schemes, which purported to be applicable
universally, are discredited because they were based on the development of
ancient Roman law and could only be applied to other systems with difficulty.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>In his lecture of 22 October 1818, he asserted
that the historical view was proffered because "of the necessity of
justifying the existing state of law." That mere habit could not be the
source of law because mere habit was only the "external, bad
existence" of the spirit.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·</span><b>Hegel</b>
excoriated the Historical School of Law, notwithstanding its powerful position
in Prussia. He criticised <b>Carl Ludwig
von Haller</b> for absurd reasoning, <b>Savigny</b>
for insulting the German nation, and <b>Gustav
Ritter von Hugo</b> for reducing jurisprudence (the science of reason) to
mathematics without reason.</span></li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Heinrich Heine<o:p></o:p></span></b></p><p class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo25; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>He sided with those to whom the right to
revolution seemed to be implied in the right to life. He attacked <b>Savigny</b> as an abject person who
advocated despotism as a customary right in the form of history.</span></li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><b>Karl Marx </b><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo11; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>Marx's</b>
original contact with the German historical school of law was not happy.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>Marx</b>
wrote articles calling for the removal of press censorship as well as the
elimination of church control over divorce. <b>Savigny</b> and <b>Hugo</b> were
defenders of the Prussian Crown and were opposed to the withdrawal of press
censorship and the secularisation of marriage and divorce. </span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>Marx</b>
wrote an article for the <i>Rheinische
Zeitung</i> called "<i>The
Philosophical Manifesto of the Historical School of Law" </i>in which he
denounced and criticised the historical school of law in 1842, calling it the
"sole frivolous product" of the eighteenth century.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>In the article mentioned above,<b> Marx</b> also attacked historical
jurisprudents as puppets of the <i>Brandenburg</i>
monarchy.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>The historical school of law had close ties with
the <i>Romantic Movement</i>. Yet <b>Marx</b> himself owed little or nothing to <i>Romanticism</i>, with its nationalist
conceptions of societies as products of organic growth. <b>Marx</b> received the notion of the historical foundations of property,
but he rejected the Romantic notion of <i>organicism</i>
and its attachment to the medieval, agrarian past. </span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>The <i>Paris
Manuscripts</i> were filled with attacks upon those who sought to defend agrarian
relations from a romantic idolisation of the feudal past.</span></li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><b> </b><b>Note:</b></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: 8.0pt; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; margin: 12pt 0in 8pt 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo11; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>In his early <i>Hegelian</i>
stage, <b>Marx</b> refuted a historical
interpretation of the law and defended an idealistic one.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo11; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·</span>When <b>Marx</b>
attacked the historical school in 1842, he did so from a <i>Hegelian</i> point of view. At the University of Berlin, <b>Marx</b> had taken courses from <b>Eduard Gans</b>, a Professor of Law, a <i>Hegelian</i>, and one of the editors of <b>Hegel</b>'s collected works. </span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>Gans</b>
influenced <b>Marx</b> and, in early 1842,
was still a <i>Hegelian</i>, so it was to be
expected that he would attack <b>Hugo</b>
and <b>Savigny</b> from the point of view
that their system deviated from the idea of law as found in <b>Hegel</b>.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>By 1846, <b>Marx</b>
had abandoned <b>Hegel</b> and moved into a
materialist phase, so while in 1842 he was prevented by his <i>Hegelianism</i> from appreciating the German
historical school of law, in 1846, he was freed by his surrender of <i>Hegelianism</i> to accept a materialist view
of history and was receptive to the insights of the historical school into the
sociological nature both of law and property.</span></li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Rudolf von Jhering<o:p></o:p></span></b></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo11; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·</span><b>Savigny</b>
has been cited for inherent inconsistency. He advocated the nationalism of
laws. As a German, this meant that the German legal system must be based on
German customs. Ironically, he recommended a refined system of Roman law for
German people. He located the origin of law in people, <i>i.e.,</i> <i>Volksgeist</i>, that
popular conscience but at the time asserted that certain customary principles
of Roman law had universal application.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>He cast aside <b>Savigny’s</b> mystical notion of the “common consciousness” as the
underlying source of law. Reflecting on the times, <b>Jhering</b> described legal development as the product of battles
between competing individuals and groups seeking legal support for their ends.</span></li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Oliver Wendell Holmes<o:p></o:p></span></b></p><p class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo11; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>Holmes</b>,
saw legal development no longer as the quiet and peaceful process <b>Savigny</b> had envisaged. It is a struggle
between competing interests—a conception reflecting the impact of <b>Charles Darwin</b>’s biology, <b>Herbert Spencer</b>’s (1820–1903) social
theory, and eventually <b>Rudolf von
Jhering</b>’s (1818–1892) jurisprudence.</span></li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Roscoe Pound<o:p></o:p></span></b></p><p class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo11; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Progressives who urged reform, like <b>Pound</b>, favoured legislation as the
vehicle to implement change.</span></li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><b>Tamanaha</b><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo11; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Over the centuries, there has been at least as
much "top-down" law-making imposition on the masses as "bottom-up"
emanation from the spirit of a people.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Historical jurisprudence "faded from the
jurisprudential scene"' due to a variety of factors: "No systematic
theory was articulated by its founders" and later theorists in the traditional
"failed to organise its fundamental propositions.</span></li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Charles Allen<o:p></o:p></span></b></p><p class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo11; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Laws are based on customs because customs are
not necessarily the outcome of the common consciousness of people. They could
be the outcome of the interest of a powerful member of society, <i>e.g.,</i> slave masters/enslavers.</span></li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Human Rights<o:p></o:p></span></b></p><p class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo11; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>It rejects the possibility of universally valid
rights and duties and the individual's possession of non-derivable and
inalienable rights.</span></li><li><b style="font-family: times; font-size: large; text-align: justify;">Julius Stone </b><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large; text-align: justify;">overemphasises that the ‘consciousness
of the people’ ignores the effic</span><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: times; text-align: justify;">iency of the legislation or planned law in
ensuring social change, </span><i style="font-family: times; text-align: justify;">e.g.,</i><span style="font-family: times; text-align: justify;"> the abolition
of child marriage and Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) in Tanzania.</span></span></li><li><span style="font-size: medium;">In heterogeneous societies or pluralistic
societies, such as in most parts of the world, it would be an uphill task to
locate that “<i style="font-family: times; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">communal conscience</i><span style="font-family: times; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">”.
Perhaps, </span><b style="font-family: times; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">Savigny’s</b><span style="font-family: times; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"> theory was meant
to apply to highly homogenous societies, but he did not clarify this.</span></span></li></ul><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><b> </b><b>Robert
E. Rodes</b></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">A lot of twentieth-century jurisprudence shows
how some law aims to change public attitudes and what </span><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Karl Llewellyn</b><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"> calls "</span><i style="text-indent: -0.25in;">folkways</i><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">"
by deploying incentives and disincentives. For instance, public attitudes
toward racial segregation and abortion have changed in recent years. In
addition, the debate over racial or gender preferences - "affirmative
action"-- often involves a choice between one-size-fits-all and a more
historically nuanced approach.</span></span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Sometimes, imported/transplanted laws serve the
community better. It has been pointed out that in Egypt in 1883, Japan in 1898,
and Turkey in 1926, longstanding legal traditions were thrown overboard and
replaced by Civil Codes imported almost verbatim from Europe. There is no
indication that these foreign codes do not serve the ongoing life of the
peoples of these countries, at least, as well as the traditional legal systems
that grew out of their historical consciousness. They probably serve the
ongoing lives of their women a good deal better. India also imported its legal
system from the West. It appropriated the English common law system, with
suitable Indian material introduced not by the people of India or their
juristic surrogates but by English lawyers, most notably Macaulay.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Practical-minded English has criticised the
historical school and American jurists in that one nation cannot have different
common consciousness of the people. <b>Gray</b>
states the most obvious objection: “<i>by
the law of Massachusetts, a contract by letter is not complete until the answer
of acceptance is received. By the law of New York, it is complete when the
answer is mailed. Is the common consciousness of the people of Massachusetts
different on this point from that of the people of New York?... In truth, not
one in a hundred people in either State has the slightest notion on the matter”</i>.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>Savigny</b>
meets this objection by claiming that judges and legal scholars work out the
technical details on behalf of the people. <b>Gray</b>
points out that the sophistication and eclecticism of legal scholars make this
argument untenable.</span></li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l38 level1 lfo36; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Geoffrey MacCormack</span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; text-indent: -0.25in;">·</span><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Criticisms of traditional historical
jurisprudence have been directed principally against the ideas that the history
of law and legal institutions can be resolved into a series of evolutionary
stages marked by continuous progression, that certain social conditions can
meaningfully be said to ‘cause’ certain legal results, and that it is possible
to discover universal legal phenomena. Hence the central issues can be
considered under the heads of ‘</span><i style="text-indent: -0.25in;">evolution’</i><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">,
‘</span><i style="text-indent: -0.25in;">causation’</i><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"> and ‘</span><i style="text-indent: -0.25in;">universals’</i><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">:</span></span></li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-top: 12pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l27 level1 lfo26; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l30 level1 lfo27; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><!--[if !supportLists]-->-<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span><i>Evolution</i>
– evolution does not necessarily mean progress or progression. One reason for
rejecting the notion of evolution in the context of historical legal studies is
its association with the idea of progression in the sense of society itself. Therefore,
the law becomes progressively better morally connected with ideas of becoming
more civilised, less barbaric and so on.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l30 level1 lfo27; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><!--[if !supportLists]-->-<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span><i>Causation</i>
- a problem faced by historical jurisprudence is constituted by its failure
always to make precise the meaning assigned to the statement that one set of
phenomena is the cause of another set or to face up to the question of what
degree of proof is relevant. One may reject a causal explanation in favour of
an approach that attempts to grasp the full meaning of social and legal
phenomena by decoding the message they present and constructing a ‘scheme of
interpretation’. One’s aim is not to arrange the phenomena under scrutiny in a
relationship of cause and effect but to understand their meaning as a totality.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l30 level1 lfo27; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><!--[if !supportLists]-->-<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span><i>Universalism
</i>– a historical school rejects the universality of law. Yet, the attempt to
establish universals may be linked with evolution in the sense that societies
everywhere are thought to have evolved in the same way or that social
institutions such as the family have undergone the same pattern of evolution
everywhere. Also, instead of looking at the evolution of social phenomena or
the correspondence between social and legal phenomena, one may look purely at
the evolution of legal phenomena and ask whether universal development patterns
are to be found.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><b> </b><b>Lord
Lloyd and other Jurists</b></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><b> </b><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Savigny</b><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">
underrated the significance of legislation for modern society. </span><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Sir Henry Maine</b><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"> rightly pointed out
that a progressive society must keep adapting the law to fresh social and economic
conditions, and legislation has proved the essential means of attaining that
end in modern times.</span></span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Important rules of law sometimes develop due to a
conscious and violent struggle between conflicting interests within the nation
and not due to imperceptible/invisible growth. That applies to the law relating
to trade unions and industry. Many institutions like slavery have originated
not in <i>volksgeist</i> but in the
convenience of a ruling oligarchy.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>Savigny</b>
overestimated or overrated the potency of custom. It is true that custom, being
a mirror of accepted usage, has a role in cementing the country's sections
together. But the utility of custom is limited in the face of societal
complexities, the challenge of development, etc. Within the context of the African
experience, we may ask how customs determine the laws of Anglophone,
Francophone and Lusophone Africa. These parts of Africa were colonised by the
English, French and Portuguese, respectively. The colonists came with their
laws, many of which displaced pre-existing customs. Although indigenous people initially
rejected such displacement, they have come to accept or retain any such laws in
their legal systems at independence and beyond. In Tanzania, for example, the
received English law (common law, equity and statute of general application)
has become part and parcel of the Tanzanian legal system.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>In globalisation, there is mutual
interdependence so that, based on the needs, countries freely import foreign
laws into their legal systems. Provisions in many international conventions
signed and domesticated by most countries were originally the customs or the
foreign law of very few countries.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>Savigny's</b>
theories are blamed for the fact that Nazi lawyers drew on his concept of
"national spirit" (<i>Volksgeist</i>)
as an idea of "inexhaustible fertility" and even proponents of racist
practice in South Africa, particularly at the Afrikaans-language universities
referred to <b>Savigny's</b> "spirit
of the Volk".</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>Maine’s </b><i>Ancient Law</i> was concerned with 'the
early history of society´ and not with primitive societies, such as Native
Americans. It was essentially limited to Indo-European societies and was
structured around the development of the institutions of Roman law.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>Maine’s</b>
scheme of legal evolution is not readily discernible elsewhere; in particular,
it has little application to England.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>Maine</b>´s
work fitted the mood of the age of biological evolution, produced by <b>Darwin</b>´s <i>Origin of Species</i> (1859). Still, its ideas were challenged by
anthropologists, who showed that they did not apply to early non-Indo-European
societies and by legal historians, who objected to the inaccuracies of his generalisations.</span></li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo23; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><b> </b><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;">9.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></b><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;">The downfall of the historical school</b></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo22; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>In the twentieth century, throughout the West,
leading exponents of positivism became triumphant and declared natural law
theory illusory and historical jurisprudence dead. </span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>In the legislature and courts and executive
agencies of nearly all countries, laws and judgments and regulations that manifested
the policy, or will, of those that made them were also interpreted in the light
of their conformity to natural justice, including reason and conscience, and to
historical traditions, including custom and precedent. The movement’s decline
and fall had several reasons, some of which were country-specific as follows:</span></li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Germany:<o:p></o:p></span></b></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: 8.0pt; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; margin: 12pt 0in 8pt 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo22; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>Rudolf
von Jhering</b> launched a devastating critique against the historical school and
pushed jurisprudence towards a sociological approach. The enactment of the <i>Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch</i> (<i>German Civil Code</i>) in 1900, abbreviated
BGB cut private law largely off from the past.</span></li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">England:<o:p></o:p></span></b></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo22; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>Maitland’s</b>
death in 1906 marked the beginning of the erstwhile decline of historical
scholarship, as neither he nor <b>Paul
Vinogradoff</b> had trained successors who could continue their work.</span></li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">United
States: <o:p></o:p></span></b></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo22; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Legal thought turned towards pragmatism and
embraced sociological jurisprudence under the leadership of <b>Roscoe Pound</b>
(himself influenced by <b>Jhering</b>). </span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>In addition, the First World War ended the
cooperation between German and Anglo-American legal scholars. </span></li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Other
reasons for the movement’s demise, which were common to all three countries -</span></b></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><i>The historical school provided
its seed of dissolution:</i><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo35; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>For once it is admitted that law is historically
conditioned, it is as impossible to limit the conception of law to a <i>Volksgeist</i> as to the commands of the
sovereign; all forms of social control and all sources of law emerge as
subjects for legitimate consideration and study.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>With its backwards-looking conception of law,
historical jurisprudence was fundamentally at odds with the forward-looking
reform agendas of the twentieth-century regulatory State</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Legal history simply did not provide solutions
for the problems of industrialisation, labour conflict, and urbanisation (and
legal historians, turning more purely historical, stopped trying). </span></li></ul><p></p><div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; margin-left: 0.25in; margin-right: 0in; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt;">
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; margin-left: 0in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><b>Rabban
</b>and<b> Tamanaha </b>claim:<b> </b>the</span><span style="font-family: times; font-size: large;"> second factor relates to age. The
turn of the century was a period of rapid and sweeping transformation, ushering
in urban industrial capitalism and bringing big business, labour unions, and
the expansion of government. It was a time of economic depression, social
dislocation, and strife. Battles between competing interests were fought out in
legal arenas… Given the rapidly dawning modern world and the volumes of the new
law being produced to meet the needs of the time, a jurisprudential school with
a backward gaze would appear to be a less productive source of insight. The
rise of legislation and the administrative State lent an old-fashioned feel to
late-nineteenth-century historical jurisprudents who centred their theories of
law on the common law.</span></p>
</div><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo22; tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>With its claim that law as a science belonged to
trained legal experts, historical jurisprudence was essentially un-democratic. This
rendered it incompatible with a law-making process in which legislatures, not
legal scientists, ultimately call the shots.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>According to <b>Rabban </b>and<b> Tamanaha</b>, after
the turn of the 20<sup>th</sup> century, evolutionary theory, <b>Herbert Spencer</b>’s Social <b>Darwinism</b> in particular, fell into disfavour.
<b>Franz Boas</b> launched a sharp critique
of comparative analyses of primitive societies—of the sort <b>Maine</b> pioneered— setting off “an anti-evolutionary tide that was to
sweep over the whole field of anthropology for more than fifty years.”</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Evolutionary analysis was castigated as
ethnocentric and racist, built on smug assumptions that the West was the high
point by which all other civilisations were measured.</span></li><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Historical jurisprudence was the victim of a
<i>misleading name/labelling</i>. </span></li></ul><p></p><div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; margin-left: 0.25in; margin-right: 0in; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt;">
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; margin-left: 0in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">According to <b>Peter Stein</b>, Labelling can work to the disadvantage of a subject if
it cannot free itself from the disfavour a certain line of enquiry has
attracted. Something of this kind has happened in the case of historical
jurisprudence.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; margin-left: 0in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"> </span></o:p></p>
</div><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="tab-stops: 83.25pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><o:p> Legal Authorities</o:p> </span></b></p><div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Legislation<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Judicature and Application of Laws
(Cap. 358)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Local Customary Law (Declaration)
Order, G.N. No. 279/1963<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Case
laws<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><i>Gwao
bin Kilimo v. Kisunda bin Ifuti </i>(1938) 1 T.L.R. (R.) 403 (Colonial Tanzania/Tanganyika)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><i>Chikumbi
Chilomo v. Madaha Mganga </i>[1986] TLR 247<i>
</i>(Mainland Tanzania)<i><o:p></o:p></i></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><i>Meera
Kumari Dhungana v. His Majesty's Government Ministry of Law, Justice and
Parliamentary Affairs and Others</i>, N.K.P 2052, Petition. No. 462 (Nepal).<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><b>Quiz </b><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">“<i>Each judge is ... like a novelist in the chain. He or she must read
through what other judges in the past have written not simply to discover what
these judges have said, or their State of mind when they said it, but to reach
an opinion about what these judges have collectively done in the way that each
of our novelists formed an opinion about the collective novel so far written.
Any judge forced to decide a lawsuit will find if he looks in the appropriate
books, records of many arguably similar cases decided over decades or even
centuries past by many other judges of different styles and judicial and
political philosophies in periods of different orthodoxies of procedure and
judicial convention. Each judge must regard himself, in deciding the new case
before him, as a partner in a complex chain enterprise of which these
innumerable decisions, structures, conventions, and practices are the history;
it is his job to continue that history into the future through what he does on
the day</i>.” <b>Ronald Dworkin</b> (1982) <i>Law as Interpretation</i>, <u>Critical
Inquiry</u> (The Politics of Interpretation), Vol. 9:1, p. 193.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Based
on the above quote and the application of the doctrine of </span><i style="text-indent: -0.25in;">stare decisis</i><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"> in the Court of Appeal of Tanzania, differentiate
between legal history and historical school, at the same time, consider whether
the role of a Justice of Appeal is to package the country’s legal system as the
product of history. </span></span></li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoListParagraph" style="mso-list: l2 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><b> </b><b>References</b></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Allen, C.K. (1964) Law in the
Making, 7<sup>th</sup> ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Beale, J.H., (1905) <i>The Development of Jurisprudence during the
Past Century</i>, <u>Harvard Law Review</u>, Vol. 18:4, pp. 271-283<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Berman, H.J. (1994) <i>The Origins of Historical Jurisprudence:
Coke, Selden, Hale</i>, <u>The Yale Law Journal</u>, Vol. 103, pp. 1651-1738<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Bix, B., (2018) <i>A New Historical Jurisprudence?</i> <u>Washington
University Law Review</u>, Vol. 95, pp. 1035-1047 <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Cory, H. (1953) <i>Sukuma Law and Custom</i>, Routledge.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Cory, H. <i>et al.,</i> (1945) <i>Customary Law
of the Haya Tribe,</i> Routledge<i>;</i><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Hoyos, R.J. (2014) <i>Historicizing Jurisprudence</i>, <u>Reviews
in American History</u>, Vol. 42:1, pp. 115-120<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Isaacs, N. (1918) <i>The Schools of Jurisprudence: Their Places
in History and Their Present Alignment</i>, <u>Harvard Law Review</u>, Vol.
31:3, pp. 373-411<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Klenner, H. (1989) <i>Savigny's Research Program of the Historical
School of Law and Its Intellectual Impact in 19<sup>th</sup> Century Berlin</i>,
<u>The American Journal of Comparative Law</u>, Vol. 37:1, pp. 67-80.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Lacey, N. (2015)<i> Jurisprudence, History, and the
Institutional Quality of Law</i>, Virginia Law Review, Vol. 101:4, pp. 919-945.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">LaPiana, W.P. (1992) <i>Jurisprudence of History and Truth</i>, <u>Rutgers
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<u>East African Law Journal</u>, Vol. 2:2, pp. 105-116.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Willman, R. (1983) <i>Blackstone and the 'Theoretical Perfection'
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</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><o:p><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"> </span></o:p></p>jabahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02886069170766354845noreply@blogger.com0Tanzania-6.369028 34.888822-34.679261836178846 -0.26742800000000244 21.941205836178845 70.045072tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-13519298994348805.post-17854125371237462772022-12-22T20:46:00.005+03:002022-12-22T21:09:11.977+03:00The Minimum Wage Order of 2022 <p> <b> </b><b>Translated by Dr. Jaba Shadrack</b></p><p><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span>(Originally published in Swahili Language) </p><p style="text-align: center;">Minimum Wage Order, Government Notice No. 687 Published on 25.11.2022</p><p style="text-align: center;"><i>(Made under Section 39 (1) of the Labour Institutions Act)</i></p><p><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span>**********************</p><div class="WordSection1"><p align="center" class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-top: 0.05pt; text-align: center;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><o:wrapblock><v:shape
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<i><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-top: 0.5pt; text-align: center;"></p><ol><li><span lang="ms" style="line-height: 107%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="text-align: justify;">This
Order shall be known as the Minimum Wage Order of 2022 and shall come into
operation on 1 January 2023.</span></li><li><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span><span style="text-align: justify;">This
Order shall apply to all employees and employers in the private sector.</span></li><li> In this Order, unless the context
requires otherwise -</li></ol></div><div class="WordSection2">
<p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 107%; margin-right: 21pt; text-align: justify;">“agriculture” shall include crop production, forest activities, animal
husbandry and insect raising; the primary processing of agriculture and animal
products by or on behalf of the operator of the undertaking, as well as the use
and maintenance of machinery, equipment, appliances, tools and agricultural
installations, including any process, storage, operation or transportation in
the agricultural undertaking including cooperatives which are related to
agricultural production;<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 107%; margin-right: 21pt; text-align: justify;">"collective
bargaining agreement" means a written agreement concluded by a registered
trade union and an employer or registered employers association on any labour
matter;</p><p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 107%; margin-right: 21pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="text-indent: -0.5in;">"commercial or industrial enterprises" means the carrying on
for gain of any business, trade, profession or other similar activities but
shall not include mining and agriculture;</span></p><p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 107%; margin-right: 21pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="text-indent: -0.5in;">"contractors"
include civil engineering, building, mechanical, electrical and specialized
contractors;</span></p><p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 107%; margin-right: 21pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="text-indent: -0.5in;"> "domestic worker" means any person
engaged in domestic work in homes or households for wages;</span></p><p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 106%; text-align: justify;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 107%;"><o:p> </o:p><span style="font-size: 9pt; line-height: 107%; position: relative; text-align: justify; top: -2pt;"> </span><span style="line-height: 107%; position: relative; text-align: justify; top: -2pt;">“employee”
has the meaning assigned to it under the Employment and Labour Relations Act;</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-size: 9pt; line-height: 106%; position: relative; text-align: justify; text-indent: -121.45pt; top: -2pt;"> </span><span style="line-height: 106%; position: relative; text-align: justify; text-indent: -121.45pt; top: -2pt;">“employer”
has the meaning assigned to it under the Employment and Labour Relations Act;</span><span style="line-height: 106%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -121.45pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -121.45pt;">"energy" includes all processes that relate to the production
or supply of energy from any source;</span></p><p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 107%; margin-top: 0.05pt; text-align: justify;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 107%; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 150.8pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .05pt; margin: 0.05pt 0in 0in 150.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in;"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 107%; margin-top: 0.05pt; text-align: justify;">“multinational companies” means multinational corporations or
international business companies that engage in business within and among
multiple countries; <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 107%; tab-stops: 117.55pt; text-align: justify;"><o:p> </o:p>“mining
operations” shall have the same meaning assigned to it under the Mining Act, and shall not include any processes related to
the production of salt or limestone;</p><p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 107%; tab-stops: 117.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="text-indent: -121.45pt;">"potential
businessman” means anyone who engages in highly productive and lucrative
economic activities;</span></p><p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 107%; tab-stops: 117.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="text-indent: -0.5in;">“private sector”
means any sector other than the public sector; </span></p><p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 107%; tab-stops: 117.55pt; text-align: justify;">“small
company” means all companies except large or multinational companies;</p><p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 107%; tab-stops: 117.55pt; text-align: justify;">"large or
tourist hotels" means all high-end and lucrative hotels, including camping
and providing tourists with accommodation and other amenities.</p></div><div class="WordSection3">
<p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-top: 0.25pt;"><span style="font-size: 9pt; line-height: 107%; position: relative; text-align: justify; text-indent: -85.45pt; top: -2pt;"> </span><span style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -85.45pt;">4. (1)
Subject to the provisions of this Order, sectors and areas of </span><span style="text-align: justify;">minimum wages are hereby established
as prescribed in the </span><b style="text-align: justify;">First </b><b style="text-align: justify;">Schedule</b><span style="text-align: justify;"> to this Order.</span></p><p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 107%; margin-right: 21.3pt; tab-stops: 150.75pt; text-align: justify;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 107%; margin-right: 21.3pt; tab-stops: 150.75pt; text-align: justify;"><o:p> </o:p><span style="text-indent: 0in;">(2) Calculating comparable
wage rates on an hourly, daily, weekly, fortnightly or monthly basis shall be
determined as prescribed in the First Schedule, made under section 26(1) of the
Employment and Labour Relations Act.</span></p><p class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 107%; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 150.75pt; margin-right: 21.05pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 21.05pt 0in 150.75pt; tab-stops: 169.3pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 107%; text-align: justify;"> (3) The
minimum wage rates specified in the <b>Second
Schedule</b> to this Order shall
be regarded as the minimum amount payable to an employee in the respective
sector, and the employer may pay such employee above the minimum but shall not
pay the employee below the prescribed amount in the respective sector.</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 107%; text-align: justify;"><span style="text-indent: 0in;">(4) More favourable terms on
the minimum wage rates shall be improved through collective bargaining
agreements or as agreed otherwise.</span></p></div><div class="WordSection5">
<p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-top: 0.5pt;"><span style="font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span><span style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -85.45pt;">5. (1)
Subject to the provision of this Order, employment standards applicable to all
employees in each specified sector shall be as provided for under Part III of the
Employment and Labour Relations Act or as stipulated in collective bargaining
agreements and employment contracts.</span></p><p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 107%; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 114.75pt; margin-right: 21.05pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 21.05pt 0in 114.75pt; tab-stops: 150.75pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -85.45pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 107%; text-align: justify;"> <span lang="ms" style="line-height: 107%;">(2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>An
employee shall, in addition to annual paid leave, be entitled to leave travel
assistance once every two years of continuous service with the same employer.</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 107%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="ms" style="line-height: 107%; text-indent: 0in;">(3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: 0in;">The
employee will be entitled to other allowances as agreed between the employer
and the employee.</span></p><p class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 107%; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 114.75pt; margin-right: 21.05pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 21.05pt 0in 114.75pt; mso-list: l0 level3 lfo2; tab-stops: 170.0pt; text-align: justify;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraph"><o:p> </o:p><span lang="ms" style="line-height: 107%; text-align: justify;">(4) Notwithstanding </span><span style="text-align: justify;">the generality of this paragraph, a truck driver shall be entitled to an
allowance for mileage, remote work, loading and unloading as agreed between
drivers and employers.</span></p><p class="MsoListParagraph"><span lang="ms" style="line-height: 107%; text-align: justify;">6.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="text-align: justify;">Where
any employee to whom the provisions of this Order apply is, at the commencement
of this Order, entitled to receive wages at a higher rate than those prescribed
or provided under this Order, that employee shall for so long as is employed by
the same employer, continue to receive such higher wages and favourable terms.</span></p></div><div class="WordSection6"><p class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 107%; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 14.8pt; margin-right: 21.05pt; margin-top: 4.6pt; margin: 4.6pt 21.05pt 0in 14.8pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: 62.35pt; text-align: justify;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><br clear="all" style="break-before: auto; mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;" />
</span>
<div class="WordSection7">
<p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-top: 0.45pt;"><span style="font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span><span lang="ms" style="line-height: 107%;">7.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>The
Minimum Wage Order, G.N. No. 196 of 2013 is hereby revoked.</p></div><div class="WordSection8"><p class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 107%; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 29.35pt; margin-right: 21.0pt; margin-top: 4.55pt; margin: 4.55pt 21pt 0in 29.35pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: 80.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><br clear="all" style="break-before: auto; mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;" />
</span>
<div class="WordSection9">
<p class="MsoBodyText"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> <span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span></span><b> FIRST SCHEDULE</b></p><p class="P68B1DB1-Normal5" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 80.75pt; margin-right: 72.8pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 72.8pt 0in 80.75pt;"><br /></p><p class="P68B1DB1-Normal5" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 80.75pt; margin-right: 72.8pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 72.8pt 0in 80.75pt;"> <i> (Made under paragraph 4 (1))</i></p><p class="P68B1DB1-Normal5" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 80.75pt; margin-right: 72.8pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 72.8pt 0in 80.75pt;"><br /></p><p class="P68B1DB1-Normal5" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 80.75pt; margin-right: 72.8pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 72.8pt 0in 80.75pt;"> </p>
<p align="center" class="P68B1DB1-Normal5" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 80.75pt; margin-right: 72.8pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 72.8pt 0in 80.75pt; text-align: center;"><b>SECTORS AND SPECIFIC MINIMUM WAGE<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-top: 0.25pt; text-align: left;"></p><ol style="text-align: left;"><li><span style="text-indent: -16.85pt;">Agricultural sector;</span></li><li><span style="text-indent: -16.85pt;">Health sector;</span></li><li><span style="text-indent: -16.25pt;">Telecommunication sector;</span></li><li><span lang="ms" style="text-indent: -16.85pt;"><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -16.85pt;">Domestic and hospitality services;</span></li><li><span lang="ms" style="text-indent: -16.85pt;"><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -16.85pt;">Private Security services;</span></li><li><span lang="ms" style="text-indent: -13.7pt;"><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -13.7pt;">Energy sector;</span></li><li><span lang="ms" style="text-indent: -16.85pt;"><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -16.85pt;">Transportation sector;</span></li><li><span lang="ms" style="text-indent: -16.85pt;"><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -16.85pt;">Construction sector;</span></li><li><span lang="ms" style="text-indent: -13.1pt;"><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -13.1pt;">Mining sector;</span></li><li><span lang="ms" style="text-indent: -13.1pt;"><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -13.1pt;">Private school services;</span></li><li><span lang="ms" style="text-indent: -16.25pt;"><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -16.25pt;">Commercial and industrial sectors;</span></li><li><span lang="ms" style="text-indent: -13.1pt;"><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -13.1pt;">Fishing
and marine services; and</span></li><li><span lang="ms" style="text-indent: -16.8pt;"><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -16.8pt;">Other
sectors.</span></li></ol><div style="text-indent: -22.4px;"><br /></div><p></p><p class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 12pt; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo1; text-indent: -16.8pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 104.6pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 8.1pt; margin: 8.1pt 0in 0in 104.6pt; tab-stops: 104.6pt; text-align: center;"><b> SECOND SCHEDULE</b></p><p class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 104.6pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 8.1pt; margin: 8.1pt 0in 0in 104.6pt; tab-stops: 104.6pt; text-align: center;"><br /></p><p class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 104.6pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 8.1pt; margin: 8.1pt 0in 0in 104.6pt; tab-stops: 104.6pt; text-align: center;"><i>(Made under paragraph 4 (3))</i></p><p class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 104.6pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 8.1pt; margin: 8.1pt 0in 0in 104.6pt; tab-stops: 104.6pt; text-align: center;"><br /></p><p class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 104.6pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 8.1pt; margin: 8.1pt 0in 0in 104.6pt; tab-stops: 104.6pt; text-align: center;"><b>MINIMUM WAGE RATES</b></p><p align="right" class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 104.6pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 8.1pt; margin: 8.1pt 0in 0in 104.6pt; tab-stops: 104.6pt; text-align: right; text-indent: 0in;"><span style="text-align: left;"> </span><span style="text-align: left;"> </span><span style="text-align: left;"> </span><span style="text-align: left;"> </span><span style="text-align: left;"> </span><span style="text-align: left;"> </span><span style="text-align: left;"> </span><span style="text-align: left;"> </span><span style="text-align: left;"> </span><span style="text-align: left;"> </span><span style="text-align: left;"> </span><span style="text-align: left;"> </span><span style="text-align: left;"> </span><span style="text-align: left;"> </span><span style="text-align: left;"> </span><span style="text-align: left;"> </span><span style="text-align: left;"> </span></p></div><div class="WordSection10">
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; margin-left: 5.85pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-insideh: .5pt solid black; mso-border-insidev: .5pt solid black; mso-padding-alt: 0in 0in 0in 0in; mso-table-layout-alt: fixed; mso-yfti-tbllook: 480;">
<tbody><tr style="height: 22.85pt; mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="border: 1pt solid black; height: 22.85pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 51.95pt;" valign="top" width="69">
<p class="TableParagraph"><b><span style="font-size: 9pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span></b></p>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: 1pt solid black; height: 22.85pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 198.95pt;" valign="top" width="265">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.15pt; margin-left: 79.9pt;"><b> Sector and area<o:p></o:p></b></p>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: 1pt solid black; height: 22.85pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 109.4pt;" valign="top" width="146">
<p align="center" class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.15pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 26.7pt; margin-right: 26.3pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 26.3pt 0in 26.7pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly; text-align: center;"><b>Time<o:p></o:p></b></p>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: 1pt solid black; height: 22.85pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p align="center" class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.15pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 13.3pt; margin-right: 13.05pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 13.05pt 0in 13.3pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly; text-align: center;"><b>Rate<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p align="center" class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.75pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 13.2pt; margin-right: 13.05pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 13.05pt 0in 13.2pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly; text-align: center;"><b>TZS<o:p></o:p></b></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 57.55pt; mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: 1pt solid black; height: 57.55pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 51.95pt;" valign="top" width="69">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.25pt; margin-left: 5.35pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><b>1.<o:p></o:p></b></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.55pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 198.95pt;" valign="top" width="265">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.25pt; margin-left: 5.35pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><b>Agricultural
sector<o:p></o:p></b></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.55pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 109.4pt;" valign="top" width="146">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"></p><ul><li>Hourly</li><li> Daily</li><li>Weekly</li><li>Fortnightly</li><li>Monthly</li></ul><p></p><p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.5pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 28.2pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 28.2pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.55pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p align="right" class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.2pt; margin-left: 5.65pt; text-align: right;"></p><ul><li>718</li><li>5,385</li><li>32,310</li><li>64,620</li><li>140,000</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p align="right" class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.45pt; margin-left: 5.65pt; text-align: right;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-left: 31.1pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 31.1pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .05pt; margin: 0.05pt 0in 0in 31.1pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.85pt; margin-left: 26.05pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 57.45pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: 1pt solid black; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 51.95pt;" valign="top" width="69">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.15pt; margin-left: 5.35pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><b>2.<o:p></o:p></b></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 198.95pt;" valign="top" width="265">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.15pt; margin-left: 5.35pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"></p><ul><li><b>Health
sector</b></li></ul><p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 109.4pt;" valign="top" width="146">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"></p><ul><li>Hourly</li><li> Daily </li><li> Weekly</li><li>Fortnightly </li><li>Monthly</li></ul><p></p><p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.5pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 28.2pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 28.2pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.15pt; margin-left: 36.15pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"></p><ul><li>1,000</li><li>7,501</li><li>45,003</li><li>90,007</li><li>195,000</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-left: 36.15pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.45pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 31.1pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .05pt; margin: 0.05pt 0in 0in 31.1pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.45pt; margin-left: 31.1pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.85pt; margin-left: 26.05pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.4pt; mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: 1pt solid black; height: 11.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 51.95pt;" valign="top" width="69">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.45pt; margin-left: 5.35pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><b>3.<o:p></o:p></b></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 11.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 198.95pt;" valign="top" width="265">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.45pt; margin-left: 5.35pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><b>Telecommunication
sector<o:p></o:p></b></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 11.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 109.4pt;" valign="top" width="146">
<p class="TableParagraph"><span style="font-size: 8pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 11.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p class="TableParagraph"><span style="font-size: 8pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 57.45pt; mso-yfti-irow: 4;">
<td rowspan="2" style="border-top: none; border: 1pt solid black; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 51.95pt;" valign="top" width="69">
<p class="TableParagraph"><b><span style="font-size: 9pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span></b></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 198.95pt;" valign="top" width="265">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.15pt; margin-left: 5.35pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;">(a) Communication services<o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 109.4pt;" valign="top" width="146">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"></p><ul><li>Hourly</li><li> Daily </li><li> Weekly</li><li>Fortnightly </li><li>Monthly</li></ul><p></p><p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.4pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 28.2pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 28.2pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.15pt; margin-left: 36.15pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"></p><ul><li>2,564</li><li>19,232</li><li>115,394</li><li>230,787</li><li>500,000</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-left: 31.1pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 26.05pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .05pt; margin: 0.05pt 0in 0in 26.05pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.45pt; margin-left: 26.05pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.8pt; margin-left: 26.05pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 57.55pt; mso-yfti-irow: 5;">
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.55pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 198.95pt;" valign="top" width="265">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 21.45pt; margin-right: 4.2pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 4.2pt 0in 21.45pt; text-indent: -16.1pt;">(b)
Broadcasting and Mass Media, Postal and Courier Services<o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.55pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 109.4pt;" valign="top" width="146">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"></p><ul><li>Hourly</li><li> Daily </li><li> Weekly</li><li>Fortnightly </li><li> Monthly</li></ul><p></p><p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.5pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 28.2pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 28.2pt 0in 5.4pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.55pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.15pt; margin-left: 36.15pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"></p><ul><li>1,154</li><li>8,654</li><li>51,927</li><li>103,854</li><li>225,000</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-left: 36.15pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 31.1pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .05pt; margin: 0.05pt 0in 0in 31.1pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-left: 26.05pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.85pt; margin-left: 26.05pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.45pt; mso-yfti-irow: 6;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: 1pt solid black; height: 11.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 51.95pt;" valign="top" width="69">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.5pt; margin-left: 5.35pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><b>4.<o:p></o:p></b></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 11.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 198.95pt;" valign="top" width="265">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.5pt; margin-left: 5.35pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><b>Domestic
and hospitality services<o:p></o:p></b></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 11.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 109.4pt;" valign="top" width="146">
<p class="TableParagraph"><span style="font-size: 8pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 11.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p class="TableParagraph"><span style="font-size: 8pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 57.45pt; mso-yfti-irow: 7;">
<td rowspan="5" style="border-top: none; border: 1pt solid black; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 51.95pt;" valign="top" width="69">
<p class="TableParagraph"><b><span style="font-size: 9pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span></b></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 198.95pt;" valign="top" width="265">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-left: 28.55pt; text-indent: -23.2pt;">(a) domestic workers employed by diplomats and potential businessmen<o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 109.4pt;" valign="top" width="146">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"></p><ul><li>Hourly</li><li> Daily </li><li>Weekly</li><li>Fortnightly </li><li>Monthly</li></ul><p></p><p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.5pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 28.2pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 28.2pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.15pt; margin-left: 36.15pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"></p><ul><li>1,282</li><li>9,616</li><li>57,697</li><li>115,393</li><li>250,000</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.45pt; margin-left: 36.15pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.45pt; margin-left: 31.1pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 26.05pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .05pt; margin: 0.05pt 0in 0in 26.05pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.85pt; margin-left: 26.05pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 57.4pt; mso-yfti-irow: 8;">
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 198.95pt;" valign="top" width="265">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-left: 28.55pt; text-indent: -23.2pt;">(b) domestic workers employed by entitled officers<o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 109.4pt;" valign="top" width="146">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"></p><ul><li>Hourly</li><li> Daily </li><li> Weekly</li><li>Fortnightly </li><li>Monthly</li></ul><p></p><p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.5pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 28.2pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 28.2pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.1pt; margin-left: 36.15pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"></p><ul><li>1,026</li><li>7,693</li><li>46,157</li><li>92,315</li><li>200,000</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-left: 36.15pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.45pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 31.1pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .05pt; margin: 0.05pt 0in 0in 31.1pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.45pt; margin-left: 31.1pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.85pt; margin-left: 26.05pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 57.4pt; mso-yfti-irow: 9;">
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 198.95pt;" valign="top" width="265">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 21.45pt; margin-right: 4.2pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 4.2pt 0in 21.45pt; text-indent: -16.1pt;">(c)
domestic workers other than those employed by diplomats, potential
businessmen and entitled officers who do not reside in the employer's
household<o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 109.4pt;" valign="top" width="146">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"></p><ul><li>Hourly</li><li> Daily </li><li> Weekly</li><li>Fortnightly </li><li> Monthly</li></ul><p></p><p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.5pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 28.2pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 28.2pt 0in 5.4pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p align="right" class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.1pt; margin-left: 5.65pt; text-align: right;"></p><ul><li>615</li><li>4,616</li><li>27,694</li><li>55,389</li><li>120,000</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p align="right" class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-left: 5.65pt; text-align: right;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p align="right" class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin: 0.05pt 0in 0.0001pt 5.65pt; text-align: right;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p align="right" class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-left: 5.65pt; text-align: right;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p align="right" class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.75pt; margin-left: 4.8pt; text-align: right;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 57.45pt; mso-yfti-irow: 10;">
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 198.95pt;" valign="top" width="265">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 98%; margin-left: 21.45pt; text-indent: -16.1pt;">(d) Other domestic workers not specified in items
(a),<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-left: 21.45pt;">(b) and (c)
above<o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 109.4pt;" valign="top" width="146">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"></p><ul><li>Hourly</li><li> Daily </li><li> Weekly</li><li>Fortnightly </li><li>Monthly</li></ul><p></p><p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.5pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 28.2pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 28.2pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p align="right" class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.1pt; margin-left: 5.65pt; text-align: right;"></p><ul><li>308</li><li>2,308</li><li>13,847</li><li>27,694</li><li>60,000</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p align="right" class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.45pt; margin-left: 5.65pt; text-align: right;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-left: 31.1pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 31.1pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .05pt; margin: 0.05pt 0in 0in 31.1pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.85pt; margin-left: 31.1pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.4pt; mso-yfti-irow: 11; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 11.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 198.95pt;" valign="top" width="265">
<p class="TableParagraph"><span style="font-size: 8pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 11.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 109.4pt;" valign="top" width="146">
<p class="TableParagraph"><span style="font-size: 8pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 11.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p class="TableParagraph"><span style="font-size: 8pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 8pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><br clear="all" style="break-before: page; mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<div class="WordSection11">
<p class="MsoBodyText"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-top: 0.3pt;"><span style="font-size: 5.5pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span></p>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; margin-left: 5.85pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-insideh: .5pt solid black; mso-border-insidev: .5pt solid black; mso-padding-alt: 0in 0in 0in 0in; mso-table-layout-alt: fixed; mso-yfti-tbllook: 480;">
<tbody><tr style="height: 57.55pt; mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="border: 1pt solid black; height: 57.55pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 51.95pt;" valign="top" width="69">
<p class="TableParagraph"><span style="font-size: 9pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: 1pt solid black; height: 57.55pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 198.95pt;" valign="top" width="265">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.25pt; margin-left: 5.35pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;">(e) large or tourist hotels<o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: 1pt solid black; height: 57.55pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 109.4pt;" valign="top" width="146">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"></p><ul><li>Hourly</li><li> Daily</li><li>Weekly</li><li>Fortnightly</li><li>Monthly</li></ul><p></p><p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.5pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 28.2pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 28.2pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: 1pt solid black; height: 57.55pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.2pt; margin-left: 36.15pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"></p><ul><li>1,539</li><li>11,539</li><li>69,236</li><li>138,472</li><li>300,000</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.45pt; margin-left: 31.1pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-left: 31.1pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 26.05pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .05pt; margin: 0.05pt 0in 0in 26.05pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.85pt; margin-left: 26.05pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 61.15pt; mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td rowspan="2" style="border-top: none; border: 1pt solid black; height: 61.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 51.95pt;" valign="top" width="69">
<p class="TableParagraph"><span style="font-size: 9pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 61.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 198.95pt;" valign="top" width="265">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.15pt; margin-left: 5.35pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;">(f) Medium-size hotels<o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 61.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 109.4pt;" valign="top" width="146">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"></p><ul><li>Hourly</li><li> Daily </li><li>Weekly</li><li>Fortnightly </li><li> Monthly</li></ul><p></p><p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 28.2pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 28.2pt 0in 5.4pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 61.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p align="right" class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.15pt; margin-left: 5.65pt; text-align: right;"></p><ul><li>923</li><li>6,924</li><li>41,542</li><li>83,083</li><li>180,000</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p align="right" class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-left: 5.65pt; text-align: right;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.45pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 31.1pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .05pt; margin: 0.05pt 0in 0in 31.1pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.45pt; margin-left: 31.1pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-left: 26.05pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 57.55pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.55pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 198.95pt;" valign="top" width="265">
<p class="TableParagraph" style="margin-top: 0.25pt;"><span style="font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-left: 5.35pt;">(g) restaurants,
lodges and bars<o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.55pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 109.4pt;" valign="top" width="146">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"></p><ul><li>Hourly</li><li> Daily </li><li> Weekly</li><li>Fortnightly </li><li> Monthly</li></ul><p></p><p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.5pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 28.2pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 28.2pt 0in 5.4pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.55pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.15pt; margin-left: 43.6pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"></p><ul><li>769</li><li>5,770</li><li>34,618</li><li>69,236</li><li>150,000</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-left: 36.15pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 31.1pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .05pt; margin: 0.05pt 0in 0in 31.1pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-left: 31.1pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.85pt; margin-left: 26.05pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.45pt; mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: 1pt solid black; height: 11.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 51.95pt;" valign="top" width="69">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.5pt; margin-left: 5.35pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><b>5.<o:p></o:p></b></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 11.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 198.95pt;" valign="top" width="265">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.5pt; margin-left: 5.35pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><b>Private
Security services<o:p></o:p></b></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 11.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 109.4pt;" valign="top" width="146">
<p class="TableParagraph"><span style="font-size: 8pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 11.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p class="TableParagraph"><span style="font-size: 8pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 57.45pt; mso-yfti-irow: 4;">
<td rowspan="2" style="border-top: none; border: 1pt solid black; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 51.95pt;" valign="top" width="69">
<p class="TableParagraph"><b><span style="font-size: 9pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span></b></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 198.95pt;" valign="top" width="265">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.15pt; margin-left: 5.35pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;">(a) large and multinational companies<o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 109.4pt;" valign="top" width="146">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"></p><ul><li>Hourly</li><li> Daily </li><li>Weekly</li><li>Fortnightly </li><li>Monthly</li></ul><p></p><p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.5pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 28.2pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 28.2pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.15pt; margin-left: 36.15pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"></p><ul><li>1,139</li><li>8,539</li><li>51,235</li><li>102,469</li><li>222,000</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.45pt; margin-left: 36.15pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.45pt; margin-left: 31.1pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 26.05pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .05pt; margin: 0.05pt 0in 0in 26.05pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.85pt; margin-left: 26.05pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 57.4pt; mso-yfti-irow: 5;">
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 198.95pt;" valign="top" width="265">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.1pt; margin-left: 7.15pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;">(b) small companies<o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 109.4pt;" valign="top" width="146">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"></p><ul><li>Hourly</li><li> Daily </li><li> Weekly</li><li>Fortnightly </li><li>Monthly</li></ul><p></p><p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.4pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 28.2pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 28.2pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p align="right" class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.1pt; margin-left: 5.65pt; text-align: right;"></p><ul><li>759</li><li>5,693</li><li>34,156</li><li>68,313</li><li>148,000</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p align="right" class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-left: 5.65pt; text-align: right;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p align="right" class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin: 0.05pt 0in 0.0001pt 5.65pt; text-align: right;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p align="right" class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.45pt; margin-left: 5.65pt; text-align: right;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p align="right" class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.8pt; margin-left: 5.65pt; text-align: right;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.45pt; mso-yfti-irow: 6;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: 1pt solid black; height: 11.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 51.95pt;" valign="top" width="69">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.5pt; margin-left: 5.35pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><b>6.<o:p></o:p></b></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 11.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 198.95pt;" valign="top" width="265">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.5pt; margin-left: 5.35pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><b>Energy
sector<o:p></o:p></b></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 11.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 109.4pt;" valign="top" width="146">
<p class="TableParagraph"><span style="font-size: 8pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 11.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p class="TableParagraph"><span style="font-size: 8pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 57.45pt; mso-yfti-irow: 7;">
<td rowspan="2" style="border-top: none; border: 1pt solid black; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 51.95pt;" valign="top" width="69">
<p class="TableParagraph"><b><span style="font-size: 9pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span></b></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 198.95pt;" valign="top" width="265">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.15pt; margin-left: 5.35pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"></p><ul><li>(a) multinational companies</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 109.4pt;" valign="top" width="146">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"></p><ul><li>Hourly</li><li> Daily </li><li> Weekly</li><li>Fortnightly </li><li> Monthly</li></ul><p></p><p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.5pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 28.2pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 28.2pt 0in 5.4pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.15pt; margin-left: 36.15pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"></p><ul><li>3,036</li><li>22,771</li><li>136,626</li><li>273,252</li><li>592,000</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-left: 31.1pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 26.05pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .05pt; margin: 0.05pt 0in 0in 26.05pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-left: 26.05pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.75pt; margin-left: 26.05pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 57.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 8;">
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 198.95pt;" valign="top" width="265">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.25pt; margin-left: 5.35pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;">(b) small companies<o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 109.4pt;" valign="top" width="146">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"></p><ul><li>Hourly</li><li> Daily </li><li> Weekly</li><li>Fortnightly </li><li>Monthly</li></ul><p></p><p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.5pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 28.2pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 28.2pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.2pt; margin-left: 36.15pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"></p><ul><li>1,154</li><li>8,654</li><li>51,927</li><li>103,854</li><li>225,000</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.45pt; margin-left: 36.15pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-left: 31.1pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 26.05pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .05pt; margin: 0.05pt 0in 0in 26.05pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.85pt; margin-left: 26.05pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.45pt; mso-yfti-irow: 9;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: 1pt solid black; height: 11.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 51.95pt;" valign="top" width="69">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.5pt; margin-left: 5.35pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><b>7.<o:p></o:p></b></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 11.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 198.95pt;" valign="top" width="265">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.5pt; margin-left: 5.35pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><b>Transportation
sector<o:p></o:p></b></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 11.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 109.4pt;" valign="top" width="146">
<p class="TableParagraph"><span style="font-size: 8pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 11.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p class="TableParagraph"><span style="font-size: 8pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 57.45pt; mso-yfti-irow: 10;">
<td rowspan="3" style="border-top: none; border: 1pt solid black; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 51.95pt;" valign="top" width="69">
<p class="TableParagraph"><span style="font-size: 9pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 198.95pt;" valign="top" width="265">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.15pt; margin-left: 5.35pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;">(a) aviation services<o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 109.4pt;" valign="top" width="146">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"></p><ul><li>Hourly</li><li> Daily </li><li> Weekly</li><li>Fortnightly </li><li>Monthly</li></ul><p></p><p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.5pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 28.2pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 28.2pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.15pt; margin-left: 36.15pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"></p><ul><li>2,000</li><li>15,001</li><li>90,007</li><li>180,014</li><li>390,000</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-left: 31.1pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.45pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 31.1pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .05pt; margin: 0.05pt 0in 0in 31.1pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.45pt; margin-left: 26.05pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.85pt; margin-left: 26.05pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 57.4pt; mso-yfti-irow: 11;">
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 198.95pt;" valign="top" width="265">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.1pt; margin-left: 5.35pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"></p><ul><li>(b) Clearing and Forwarding services</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 109.4pt;" valign="top" width="146">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"></p><ul><li>Hourly</li><li> Daily </li><li> Weekly</li><li>Fortnightly </li><li>Monthly</li></ul><p></p><p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.4pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 28.2pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 28.2pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.1pt; margin-left: 36.15pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"></p><ul><li>1,846</li><li>13,847</li><li>83,083</li><li>166,167</li><li>360,000</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-left: 31.1pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 31.1pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .05pt; margin: 0.05pt 0in 0in 31.1pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.45pt; margin-left: 26.05pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.8pt; margin-left: 26.05pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 57.55pt; mso-yfti-irow: 12;">
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.55pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 198.95pt;" valign="top" width="265">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.15pt; margin-left: 5.35pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;">(c) Inland transport services<o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.55pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 109.4pt;" valign="top" width="146">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"></p><ul><li>Hourly</li><li> Daily </li><li> Weekly</li><li>Fortnightly </li><li> Monthly</li></ul><p></p><p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.5pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 28.2pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 28.2pt 0in 5.4pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.55pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.15pt; margin-left: 36.15pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"></p><ul><li>1,539</li><li>11,539</li><li>69,236</li><li>138,472</li><li>300,000</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-left: 31.1pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 31.1pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .05pt; margin: 0.05pt 0in 0in 31.1pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-left: 26.05pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.85pt; margin-left: 26.05pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.45pt; mso-yfti-irow: 13;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: 1pt solid black; height: 11.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 51.95pt;" valign="top" width="69">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.5pt; margin-left: 5.35pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><b>8.<o:p></o:p></b></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 11.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 198.95pt;" valign="top" width="265">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.5pt; margin-left: 5.35pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><b>Construction
sector<o:p></o:p></b></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 11.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 109.4pt;" valign="top" width="146">
<p class="TableParagraph"><span style="font-size: 8pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 11.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p class="TableParagraph"><span style="font-size: 8pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 23pt; mso-yfti-irow: 14; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: 1pt solid black; height: 23pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 51.95pt;" valign="top" width="69">
<p class="TableParagraph"><span style="font-size: 9pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 23pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 198.95pt;" valign="top" width="265">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.15pt; margin-left: 5.35pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;">(a) Contractors: Class I<o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 23pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 109.4pt;" valign="top" width="146">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.15pt; margin-left: 5.4pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"></p><ul><li>Hourly</li><li>Daily</li></ul><p></p><p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.15pt; margin-left: 5.4pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.85pt; margin-left: 5.4pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 23pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.15pt; margin-left: 36.15pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"></p><ul><li>2,154</li><li>16,155</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.85pt; margin-left: 31.1pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><br clear="all" style="break-before: page; mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<div class="WordSection12">
<p class="MsoBodyText"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-top: 0.3pt;"><span style="font-size: 5.5pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span></p>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; margin-left: 5.85pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-insideh: .5pt solid black; mso-border-insidev: .5pt solid black; mso-padding-alt: 0in 0in 0in 0in; mso-table-layout-alt: fixed; mso-yfti-tbllook: 480;">
<tbody><tr style="height: 34.5pt; mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td rowspan="3" style="border: 1pt solid black; height: 34.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 51.95pt;" valign="top" width="69">
<p class="TableParagraph"><span style="font-size: 9pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: 1pt solid black; height: 34.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 203.45pt;" valign="top" width="271">
<p class="TableParagraph"><span style="font-size: 9pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: 1pt solid black; height: 34.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 104.9pt;" valign="top" width="140">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.2pt; margin-left: 5.4pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"></p><ul><li>Weekly</li><li>Fortnightly </li><li>Monthly</li></ul><p></p><p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.2pt; margin-left: 5.4pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.5pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 28.2pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 28.2pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: 1pt solid black; height: 34.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.2pt; margin-left: 31.1pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"></p><ul><li>96,931</li><li>193,861</li><li>420,000</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.45pt; margin-left: 26.05pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.85pt; margin-left: 26.05pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 57.45pt; mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 203.45pt;" valign="top" width="271">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.15pt; margin-left: 5.35pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"></p><ul><li>(b) Contractors: Class II - IV</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 104.9pt;" valign="top" width="140">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"></p><ul><li>Hourly</li><li> Daily</li><li>Weekly</li><li>Fortnightly
Monthly</li></ul><p></p><p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.5pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 28.2pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 28.2pt 0in 5.4pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.15pt; margin-left: 36.15pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"></p><ul><li>1,846</li><li>13,847</li><li>83,083</li><li>166,167</li><li>360,000</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-left: 31.1pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 31.1pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .05pt; margin: 0.05pt 0in 0in 31.1pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-left: 26.05pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.75pt; margin-left: 26.05pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 57.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 203.45pt;" valign="top" width="271">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.25pt; margin-left: 5.35pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;">(c) Contractors: Class V-VII<o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 104.9pt;" valign="top" width="140">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt; text-indent: -0.05pt;"></p><ul><li>Hourly</li><li> Daily </li><li>Weekly</li><li>Fortnightly </li><li>Monthly</li></ul><p></p><p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt; text-indent: -0.05pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.5pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 28.2pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 28.2pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.2pt; margin-left: 36.15pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"></p><ul><li>1,641</li><li>12,309</li><li>73,852</li><li>147,704</li><li>320,000</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.45pt; margin-left: 31.1pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-left: 31.1pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 26.05pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .05pt; margin: 0.05pt 0in 0in 26.05pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.85pt; margin-left: 26.05pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.45pt; mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: 1pt solid black; height: 11.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 51.95pt;" valign="top" width="69">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.5pt; margin-left: 5.35pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><b>9.<o:p></o:p></b></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 11.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 203.45pt;" valign="top" width="271">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.5pt; margin-left: 5.35pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><b>Mining
sector<o:p></o:p></b></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 11.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 104.9pt;" valign="top" width="140">
<p class="TableParagraph"><span style="font-size: 8pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 11.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p class="TableParagraph"><span style="font-size: 8pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 57.45pt; mso-yfti-irow: 4;">
<td rowspan="4" style="border-top: none; border: 1pt solid black; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 51.95pt;" valign="top" width="69">
<p class="TableParagraph"><b><span style="font-size: 9pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span></b></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 203.45pt;" valign="top" width="271">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.15pt; margin-left: 5.35pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"></p><ul><li>(a) Mining and prospecting Licences</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 104.9pt;" valign="top" width="140">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"></p><ul><li>Hourly</li><li> Daily </li><li> Weekly</li><li>Fortnightly </li><li>Monthly</li></ul><p></p><p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.5pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 28.2pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 28.2pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.15pt; margin-left: 36.15pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"></p><ul><li>2,564</li><li>19,232</li><li>115,394</li><li>230,787</li><li>500,000</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.45pt; margin-left: 31.1pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.45pt; margin-left: 26.05pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 26.05pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .05pt; margin: 0.05pt 0in 0in 26.05pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.85pt; margin-left: 26.05pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 57.4pt; mso-yfti-irow: 5;">
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 203.45pt;" valign="top" width="271">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.1pt; margin-left: 5.35pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;">(b) holders of small-scale mining licences<o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 104.9pt;" valign="top" width="140">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"></p><ul><li>Hourly</li><li> Daily </li><li> Weekly</li><li>Fortnightly </li><li>Monthly</li></ul><p></p><p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.4pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 28.2pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 28.2pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.1pt; margin-left: 36.15pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"></p><ul><li>1,539</li><li>11,539</li><li>69,236</li><li>138,472</li><li>300,000</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-left: 31.1pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 31.1pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .05pt; margin: 0.05pt 0in 0in 31.1pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.45pt; margin-left: 26.05pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.8pt; margin-left: 26.05pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 57.55pt; mso-yfti-irow: 6;">
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.55pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 203.45pt;" valign="top" width="271">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.15pt; margin-left: 5.35pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;">(c) dealer licences<o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.55pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 104.9pt;" valign="top" width="140">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"></p><ul><li>Hourly</li><li> Daily </li><li> Weekly</li><li>Fortnightly </li><li> Monthly</li></ul><p></p><p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.5pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 28.2pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 28.2pt 0in 5.4pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.55pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.15pt; margin-left: 36.15pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"></p><ul><li>2,308</li><li>17,309</li><li>103,854</li><li>207,708</li><li>450,000</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-left: 31.1pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 26.05pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .05pt; margin: 0.05pt 0in 0in 26.05pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-left: 26.05pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.85pt; margin-left: 26.05pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 57.45pt; mso-yfti-irow: 7;">
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 203.45pt;" valign="top" width="271">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.15pt; margin-left: 5.35pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;">(d) broker licences<o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 104.9pt;" valign="top" width="140">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"></p><ul><li>Hourly</li><li> Daily </li><li> Weekly</li><li>Fortnightly </li><li>Monthly</li></ul><p></p><p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.5pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 28.2pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 28.2pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.15pt; margin-left: 36.15pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"></p><ul><li>1,282</li><li>9,616</li><li>57,697</li><li>115,393</li><li>250,000</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.45pt; margin-left: 36.15pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.45pt; margin-left: 31.1pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 26.05pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .05pt; margin: 0.05pt 0in 0in 26.05pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.85pt; margin-left: 26.05pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 57.4pt; mso-yfti-irow: 8;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: 1pt solid black; height: 57.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 51.95pt;" valign="top" width="69">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.1pt; margin-left: 5.35pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><b>10.<o:p></o:p></b></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 203.45pt;" valign="top" width="271">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.1pt; margin-left: 5.35pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;">Private school services (pre-primary, primary
and secondary)<o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 104.9pt;" valign="top" width="140">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"></p><ul><li>Hourly</li><li> Daily </li><li> Weekly</li><li>Fortnightly </li><li>Monthly</li></ul><p></p><p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.5pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 28.2pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 28.2pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.1pt; margin-left: 36.15pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"></p><ul><li>1,062</li><li>7,962</li><li>47,773</li><li>95,546</li><li>207,000</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-left: 36.15pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.45pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 31.1pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .05pt; margin: 0.05pt 0in 0in 31.1pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.45pt; margin-left: 31.1pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.85pt; margin-left: 26.05pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.4pt; mso-yfti-irow: 9;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: 1pt solid black; height: 11.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 51.95pt;" valign="top" width="69">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.45pt; margin-left: 5.35pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><b>11.<o:p></o:p></b></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 11.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 203.45pt;" valign="top" width="271">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.45pt; margin-left: 5.35pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><b>Commercial
and industrial sectors<o:p></o:p></b></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 11.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 104.9pt;" valign="top" width="140">
<p class="TableParagraph"><span style="font-size: 8pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 11.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p class="TableParagraph"><span style="font-size: 8pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 57.45pt; mso-yfti-irow: 10;">
<td rowspan="2" style="border-top: none; border: 1pt solid black; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 51.95pt;" valign="top" width="69">
<p class="TableParagraph"><b><span style="font-size: 9pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span></b></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 203.45pt;" valign="top" width="271">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.15pt; margin-left: 5.35pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;">(a) business and manufacturing<o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 104.9pt;" valign="top" width="140">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"></p><ul><li>Hourly</li><li> Daily </li><li>Weekly</li><li>Fortnightly </li><li> Monthly</li></ul><p></p><p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.5pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 28.2pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 28.2pt 0in 5.4pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.15pt; margin-left: 43.6pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"></p><ul><li>769</li><li>5,770</li><li>34,618</li><li>69,236</li><li>150,000</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-left: 36.15pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 31.1pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .05pt; margin: 0.05pt 0in 0in 31.1pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-left: 31.1pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.75pt; margin-left: 26.05pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 57.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 11;">
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 203.45pt;" valign="top" width="271">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.25pt; margin-left: 5.35pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;">(b) financial institutions<o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 104.9pt;" valign="top" width="140">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"></p><ul><li>Hourly</li><li> Daily </li><li> Weekly</li><li>Fortnightly</li><li> Monthly</li></ul><p></p><p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.5pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 28.2pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 28.2pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.2pt; margin-left: 36.15pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"></p><ul><li>3,036</li><li>22,771</li><li>136,626</li><li>273,252</li><li>592,000</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.45pt; margin-left: 31.1pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-left: 26.05pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 26.05pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .05pt; margin: 0.05pt 0in 0in 26.05pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.85pt; margin-left: 26.05pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 57.45pt; mso-yfti-irow: 12;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: 1pt solid black; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 51.95pt;" valign="top" width="69">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.15pt; margin-left: 5.35pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><b>12.<o:p></o:p></b></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 203.45pt;" valign="top" width="271">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.15pt; margin-left: 5.35pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><b>Fishing
and marine services<o:p></o:p></b></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 104.9pt;" valign="top" width="140">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"></p><ul><li>Hourly</li><li> Daily </li><li> Weekly</li><li>Fortnightly </li><li>Monthly</li></ul><p></p><p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 52.0pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 52pt 0in 5.4pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.5pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 5.4pt; margin-right: 28.2pt; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 28.2pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 57.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.15pt; margin-left: 36.15pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"></p><ul><li>1,221</li><li>9,155</li><li>54,927</li><li>109,855</li><li>238,000</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.45pt; margin-left: 36.15pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 11.45pt; margin-left: 31.1pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 26.05pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .05pt; margin: 0.05pt 0in 0in 26.05pt;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.85pt; margin-left: 26.05pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.45pt; mso-yfti-irow: 13; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: 1pt solid black; height: 11.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 51.95pt;" valign="top" width="69">
<p class="TableParagraph"><span style="font-size: 8pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 11.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 203.45pt;" valign="top" width="271">
<p class="TableParagraph"><span style="font-size: 8pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 11.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 104.9pt;" valign="top" width="140">
<p class="TableParagraph"><span style="font-size: 8pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 11.45pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p class="TableParagraph"><span style="font-size: 8pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 8pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><br clear="all" style="break-before: page; mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-top: 0.3pt;"><span style="font-size: 5.5pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span></p>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; margin-left: 5.85pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-insideh: .5pt solid black; mso-border-insidev: .5pt solid black; mso-padding-alt: 0in 0in 0in 0in; mso-table-layout-alt: fixed; mso-yfti-tbllook: 480;">
<tbody><tr style="height: 11.45pt; mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="border-bottom: none; border: 1pt solid black; height: 11.45pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 51.95pt;" valign="top" width="69">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.45pt; margin-left: 5.35pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;">13.<o:p></o:p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: none; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: 1pt solid black; height: 11.45pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 230.25pt;" valign="top" width="307">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.45pt; margin-left: 5.35pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"><b>Other
sectors not specified in this Order<o:p></o:p></b></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: none; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: 1pt solid black; height: 11.45pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 78.1pt;" valign="top" width="104">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.45pt; margin-left: 5.4pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"></p><ul><li>Hourly</li></ul><p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: none; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: 1pt solid black; height: 11.45pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p align="right" class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.45pt; margin-left: 5.65pt; text-align: right;"></p><ul><li>769</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.45pt; mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="border-bottom: none; border-left: 1pt solid black; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 11.45pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 51.95pt;" valign="top" width="69">
<p class="TableParagraph"><span style="font-size: 8pt;"> </span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; height: 11.45pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 230.25pt;" valign="top" width="307">
<p class="TableParagraph"><span style="font-size: 8pt;"> </span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; height: 11.45pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 78.1pt;" valign="top" width="104">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.45pt; margin-left: 5.4pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"></p><ul><li>Daily</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; height: 11.45pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p align="right" class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.45pt; margin-left: 5.65pt; text-align: right;"></p><ul><li>5,770</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="border-bottom: none; border-left: 1pt solid black; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 11.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 51.95pt;" valign="top" width="69">
<p class="TableParagraph"><span style="font-size: 8pt;"> </span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; height: 11.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 230.25pt;" valign="top" width="307">
<p class="TableParagraph"><span style="font-size: 8pt;"> </span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; height: 11.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 78.1pt;" valign="top" width="104">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.5pt; margin-left: 5.4pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"></p><ul><li>Weekly</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; height: 11.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p align="right" class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.5pt; margin-left: 5.65pt; text-align: right;"></p><ul><li>34,618</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td style="border-bottom: none; border-left: 1pt solid black; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 11.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 51.95pt;" valign="top" width="69">
<p class="TableParagraph"><span style="font-size: 8pt;"> </span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; height: 11.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 230.25pt;" valign="top" width="307">
<p class="TableParagraph"><span style="font-size: 8pt;"> </span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; height: 11.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 78.1pt;" valign="top" width="104">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.5pt; margin-left: 5.4pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"></p><ul><li>Fortnightly</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; height: 11.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p align="right" class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.5pt; margin-left: 5.65pt; text-align: right;"></p><ul><li>69,236</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.6pt; mso-yfti-irow: 4; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: 1pt solid black; height: 11.6pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 51.95pt;" valign="top" width="69">
<p class="TableParagraph"><span style="font-size: 8pt;"> </span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 11.6pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 230.25pt;" valign="top" width="307">
<p class="TableParagraph"><span style="font-size: 8pt;"> </span></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 11.6pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 78.1pt;" valign="top" width="104">
<p class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.65pt; margin-left: 5.4pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;"></p><ul><li>Monthly</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: 1pt solid black; border-left: none; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: none; height: 11.6pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in; width: 64.9pt;" valign="top" width="87">
<p align="right" class="P68B1DB1-TableParagraph6" style="line-height: 10.65pt; margin-left: 5.65pt; text-align: right;"></p><ul><li>150,000</li></ul><o:p></o:p><p></p>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-top: 0.1pt;"><span style="font-size: 9pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 10.95pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.55pt; margin: 4.55pt 0in 0in 10.95pt; tab-stops: 262.95pt;">Dodoma, J<span style="font-size: 9pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">OYCE </span>L. N<span style="font-size: 9pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">DALICHAKO<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 224.1pt; margin-right: 63.15pt; margin-top: .1pt; margin: 0.1pt 63.15pt 0in 224.1pt; tab-stops: 205.15pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -196.6pt;">16 November 2022 <i>Minister of State, Prime Minister's Office, Labour, Youth, Employment
and people with Disabilities<o:p></o:p></i></p>jabahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02886069170766354845noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-13519298994348805.post-91999837452231441682022-12-22T11:22:00.004+03:002022-12-22T11:47:33.352+03:00The Theory of State and Law<p style="text-align: center;"><b style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;">Dr. Jaba Shadrack, UDSM - School of Law, 2022</b></p><p style="text-align: center;"><b style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;"><br /></b></p><p style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><b>The Theory of State and Law</b></span></p>
<w:sdt docparttype="Table of Contents" docpartunique="t" id="1154724895" sdtdocpart="t">
<p class="MsoTocHeading" style="margin-bottom: 12pt;"><o:p> </o:p><a name="_Toc121910216" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><b><span color="windowtext" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><b><span color="windowtext" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">Concepts</span></b></a></p></w:sdt>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 1in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo11; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Law</span></b></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 8.0pt; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; margin: 12pt 0in 8pt 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>i) Marxist/Leninist Theory of the Law</b></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> –
law is the form of regulation and consolidation of production relationships and
other social relationships of class society (<i>Evgeny Pashukanis</i>).<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 40.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo10; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Law depends on the apparatus of state
power and reflects the ruling class's interests.<o:p></o:p></span></li><li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Law is a historical phenomenon and
instrument of exploitation limited by the boundaries of class society. <o:p></o:p></span></li><li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Law is inseparably tied to the division of
society into classes, i.e., every law is the law of the ruling class.<o:p></o:p></span></li><li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The basis of law is the formulation and
consolidation of the relationship to the means of production, owing to which,
in an exploitative society, one part of the people can appropriate the unpaid
labour of another.<o:p></o:p></span></li><li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Marxism strives to give a concrete
historical meaning to the law<o:p></o:p></span></li><li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">It is impossible to define a general law
without knowing the law of slave-owning, feudal and capitalist societies.<o:p></o:p></span></li><li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The form of exploitation determines the
typical features of a legal system. Under the three basic socio-economic
formations of class society, we have three basic types of legal superstructure:
slave-owning law, feudal law, and bourgeois law.<o:p></o:p></span></li><li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The legal superstructure comprises the
totality of norms, actions of agencies, and the unity of this formal side and
its content, <i>i.e.,</i> of the social
relationships which law reflects and, simultaneously, sanctions, formalizes,
and modifies.<o:p></o:p></span></li></ul><!--[if !supportLists]--><p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Marxists’ features of the law<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 0.75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l25 level1 lfo13; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(a)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Class
nature of law – every law is the law of the ruling class <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 0.75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l25 level1 lfo13; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(b)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Protect
the <i>status quo</i> - regulate/mediate
property relationships or class interests<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 0.75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l25 level1 lfo13; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(c)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Binding
nature of the law – the functioning of a legal superstructure demands a
coercive apparatus</span></p>
<div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; margin-left: 0.75in; margin-right: 0in; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt 6pt;">
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; margin-left: 0in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">General
Criticisms:</span></b></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; margin-left: 0in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">H.L.A.
Hart </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(<i>The Concept of
Law</i>) criticizes the characterization of the law as a command or
coercive/moral order from a sovereign in that:</span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; margin-left: 0.25in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(a)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">It
imposes a misleading appearance of uniformity on different kinds of laws and
the types of social functions the law may perform. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; margin-left: 0.25in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(b)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">It
does not consider the law’s purpose, function, content, mode of origin, and
range of application.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; margin-left: 0.25in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(c)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Law
applies to those who enact them and not merely to a particular section of
society.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; margin-left: 0.25in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(d)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Law
may not necessarily impose duties or obligations but also confer powers or
privileges.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">To him, we need to
distinguish between primary and secondary legal rules. While primary rules
impose duties or obligations on individuals or govern conduct, the secondary
rule allows the creation, change, or repeal of primary rules, thus rules of
recognition, change, and adjudication. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 8.0pt; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; margin: 12pt 0in 8pt 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>ii) Bourgeois/Liberal Theory of the Law</b> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">–
binding norms/rules that mediate or reconcile differences, balance interests,
or allocate rights and duties in the state.<i><o:p></o:p></i></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 40.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo12; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">A command of a legally unlimited sovereign
or coercive orders that impose duties or obligations on individuals (<i>John Austin</i>)<o:p></o:p></span></li><li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The enterprise of subjecting human conduct
to the governance of rules (<i>Lon Fuller</i>)<o:p></o:p></span></li><li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">An eternal institution inherent to all
forms of society, including pre-class society.<o:p></o:p></span></li><li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Unlike Marxists, the Bourgeois thinkers
see marriage taboos and blood feuds, customs regulating relationships between
tribes, and customs relating to the use of the means of production belonging to
a tribe in a pre-class society as law proper.<o:p></o:p></span></li><li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Law is outside classes and any particular
socio-economic formation.<o:p></o:p></span></li></ul><!--[if !supportLists]--><p></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 1in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;"><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">B.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">State</span></b></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 1in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;"><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l32 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>i) Marxist/Leninist Theory of the State</b> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">-
A state is a machine for the maintenance of the domination of one class over
another; or an organization of the ruling class, having at its disposal the
most powerful means of suppression and coercion (<i>Evgeny Pashukanis</i>).<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l31 level1 lfo7; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">The distinguishing feature of the state is
<i>the existence of a separate class of
people in whose hands power is concentrated<o:p></o:p></i></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The state is an agency of class coercion
in the hands of the dominant economic class<o:p></o:p></span></li><li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The state is an instrument of class
domination and a symbol of injustice that comes into existence to protect private
property<o:p></o:p></span></li><li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The state is a historical phenomenon
limited by the boundaries of class society<o:p></o:p></span></li><li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">No one could use the term ‘state’ in
reference to a community in which all members administer the ‘organisation of
order’. <o:p></o:p></span></li><li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Coercive
power is not a distinguishing feature of the state.</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
Coercive power exists in every human society – both in the tribal structure and
the family, but there was no state.<o:p></o:p></span></li><li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Until the appearance of classes, the state
did not exist.<o:p></o:p></span></li><li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">In communism, there will be no state</span></li></ul><!--[if !supportLists]--><p></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 8.0pt; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; margin: 12pt 0in 8pt 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l32 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>ii) Bourgeois/Liberal/Juristic Theory of
the State</b></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-top: 12pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo8; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Woodrow Wilson - a state is a people
organized for law within a definite territory.<o:p></o:p></span></li><li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">J.W. Garner - the state is a community of more
or less numerous persons, permanently occupying a definite portion of territory,
independent or nearly so, of extreme control and possessing an organized
government to which the great body of inhabitants renders habitual obedience.<o:p></o:p></span></li><li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Neil MacCormick – a ‘state’ is either an
alternative name for an ‘independent political society’ or is the collegiate
governing entity that comprises the sovereign with those subordinate power
holders to whom have been delegated some portion of the sovereign's powers of
command and enforcement.’<o:p></o:p></span></li><li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The state is a community formed by people
that exercises permanent power within a specified territory.<o:p></o:p></span></li><li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Liberal state donates a limited government
or limited state, <i>i.e.,</i> the exercise
of its power may be distributed among various governmental organs but the
sovereignty is a unit, just as the state is a unit. <b>Montesquieu</b> proposes that in every government there must be three kinds
of power, <i>i.e.,</i> legislature,
executive and judiciary. </span></li></ul><p></p>
<div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt 0in;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Legal
Authorities:<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(a)
Treaty <o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Article
1 of the Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States (1933) </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">provides
that the state as a person of international law should have: a permanent
population; defined territory; Government; and capacity to enter into relations
with other states. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Another criterion could
be recognizing a territory as a state by the international community or being a
UN member state. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(b)
Case Law<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Serikali
ya Mapinduzi ya Zanzibar (Revolutionary Government of Zanzibar) v. Machano
Khamis Ali & Others</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">, Criminal Application 8 of 2000
[2000] TZCA 1<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></i></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">iii) </span><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Balanced View of the State (Neo-Marxism/Semi-Liberalism)</span></span></b></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-align: left;"><br /></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-align: left;">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-align: left;">Max Weber rejected Marx’s class theory</span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-align: left;">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-align: left;">To
him, a state is a human community that (successfully) claims the monopoly of
the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory. It is a relation
of men dominating men.</span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-align: left;">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-align: left;">CCM Guidelines (1981) - <i>Serikali kwa maumbile yake ni chombo cha
madaraka ya mabavu, Serikali ni sheria, ni majeshi, ni Mahakama, ni jela</i>.
(Trans: the government is an institution that possesses authoritative/coercive
power, the government is the law, is the armed forces, is the Court, and is the
prison). </span></p><!--[if !supportLists]--><p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>General </b></span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Features of the State</span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">According
to <b>Weber</b>, <b>Montevideo Convention</b>, and <b>Machano’s
case</b><i>, </i>a state must have the
population, territory, government, sovereignty, monopoly over physical force,
and legitimacy: <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l17 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(a)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Population/People</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
- an aggregate of individuals of both sexes, regardless of race, colour, or
creed- are together as a community<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; mso-list: l16 level1 lfo18; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Preamble (“<i>we, the people…</i>”) and
Article 8 (“<i>the government and the people</i>”)
of the Constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania (URT Constitution),
1977.<o:p></o:p></span></li></ul><!--[if !supportLists]--><p></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">(b)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><i style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Territory/country/permanence</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;"> –
defined territory/geographical area in which the people have settled down – the
size of the country is immaterial.</span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; mso-list: l16 level1 lfo18; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Article
2(1) of the URT Constitution provides, “<i>the
territory of the United Republic consists of the whole of the area of Mainland
Tanzania and the whole of the area of Tanzania Zanzibar, and includes the
territorial waters</i>.”<o:p></o:p></span></li></ul><!--[if !supportLists]--><p></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l17 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(c)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Government</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
- a person or persons who are the representatives of the people who rule according
to the law of the land<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; mso-list: l16 level1 lfo18; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Article
4(2) of the URT Constitution suggests the Government of the United Republic and
the Revolutionary Government of Tanzania Zanzibar<o:p></o:p></span></li></ul><!--[if !supportLists]--><p></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">(d)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><i style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Sovereignty/autonomous/independent of
foreign control </span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">- supreme authority, an authority which is
independent of any other earthly authority, i.e., absolute, universal,
permanent, and indivisible: </span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">An
authority that does not have another authority above itself, except the
Commandments of God and the Law of Nature</span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">One
and the same International Person</span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">Article
1 of the URT Constitution – “<i>Tanzania is
one State and is the sovereign United Republic</i>”.</span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">Article
1 of Zanzibar’s Constitution – “<i>Zanzibar
is an integral part of the United Republic of Tanzania</i>”.</span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">Zanzibar
- the Head of the Revolutionary Government of Zanzibar and not the Head of
State of Zanzibar (<i>semi-autonomous</i>)</span></p>
<div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; margin-left: 0.25in; margin-right: 0in; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Case
Laws:<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Jina
Khatibu Haji v. Juma Selemani Nungu and Another, Civil Appeal 23 of 1986 [1987]
TZCA 25 <o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The <i>principle of duality</i> recognise that
there are matters for the Union Government and others exclusively for the
Revolutionary Government of Zanzibar.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Serikali
ya Mapinduzi ya Zanzibar v. Machano</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> (<i>supra</i>)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Based on the <i>principle of duality</i> and the exclusive
jurisdiction of the Revolutionary Government of Zanzibar over all non-Union
Matters in Zanzibar, the only logical conclusion is that <i>sovereignty is divisible</i> <i>within
the United Republic</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Treason can only
be committed against a sovereign. Besides, treason is a breach of security (a
union matter) and thus can only be committed against the Union Government. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l17 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span></i></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l17 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(e)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Monopoly
of physical violence </span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">– centralisation of coercive powers or
domination <i><o:p></o:p></i></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-top: 12pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">Article
147 of the URT Constitution – <i>“it is
prohibited for any person, organization, or group of persons except the
Government to raise or maintain an armed force of any kind in Tanzania.</i></span></p>
<div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; margin-left: 0.5in; margin-right: 0in; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt;">
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; margin-left: 0in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Case
Laws:<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; margin-left: 0in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri;">Ngwegwe s/o Sangija & 3 Others v. R.</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">, Criminal Appeal No. 72 of 1987, High Court of Tanzania at Mwanza,
and <i>Misperesi K. Maingu v. Hamisi
Mtongori and 9 Others</i>, Civil Case No. 16 of 1988, High Court of Tanzania at
Mwanza - Judge Mwalusanya.</span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; margin-left: 0in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Sungusungu</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
- unlawful/unconstitutional group – usurping police powers</span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; margin-left: 0in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">See, Maina, C.P., </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Human Rights in Tanzania: Selected Cases and
Material</i></p>
</div>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">Section
3 of the Public Order Act (Cap. 385) – “<i>if
the members or adherents of any association of persons, whether incorporated or
not, are – (a) organised or trained or equipped for enabling them to be
employed in usurping the functions of the police or of the armed forces of the
United Republic; or (b) organised and trained or organised and equipped either to
enable them to be employed for the use or display of physical force in
promoting any political object, or in such manner as to arouse reasonable
apprehension that they are organised and either trained or equipped for that
purpose, then any member or adherent of such association shall be guilty of an
offence</i>”.</span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">Section
8 of the Societies Act (Cap. 337) – “<i>it
shall be lawful for the President, in his absolute discretion, where he
considers it to be essential in the public interest, by order to declare to be
unlawful any society which in his opinion – (a) is being used for any purpose
prejudicial to, or incompatible with, the maintenance of peace, order and good
government</i>.”</span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">Section
8E of the Political Parties (Amendment) Act (2018) - <i>(1) A political party, a leader or a member shall not recruit, deploy
or form a militia, paramilitary or security group of any kind or maintain an
organisation intending to usurp the functions of the police force or any government
security organ. (2) A political party shall not conduct, finance, coordinate or
order to be conducted or coordinated military-style training or any training on
the use of force or any weapon to its members or any other person.</i></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">Chapters
VII to IX of the Penal Code (<i>treason, misprision,
sedition, and public violence/rebellion/subversion, promoting warlike
undertakings, inciting mutiny, inducing soldiers or police officers to desert,
aiding prisoners of war to escape, unlawful oaths to commit offences, raising
discontent and ill-will for unlawful purposes, hate speech, foreign enlistment,
piracy, unlawful assembly and riot, rioters demolishing or damaging building,
going armed in public, affray, abusive language, brawling and threatening
violence, watching or besetting, and assembling for smuggling, dissuading
persons from assisting with self-help schemes</i>).</span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">Article
28(4) of the URT Constitution – “<i>treason
as defined by law shall be the gravest offence against the United Republic.</i>”</span></p>
<div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; margin-left: 0.5in; margin-right: 0in; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt;">
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; margin-left: 0in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Case
Laws:</span></b> <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">High treason and misprision of treason<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; margin-left: 0in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Gray
Likungu Mattaka & Others v. R.</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">, Criminal Appeal No. 32
of 1971 and <i>Hatibu Gandhi & Others v.
Republic</i> [1987] TZCA 18 or [1996] TLR 12.</span></p>
</div>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><i style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The modern conception of state monopoly
-</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">
the state tends to delegate coercive powers or use physical force to non-state
actors. The state is considered the sole source of the right to use violence.
However, the right to use physical force is ascribed to other institutions or
individuals only to the extent to which the state permits it. For examples:</span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 0.75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l18 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Article 28(1) of the URT Constitution – “<i>every citizen has the duty to protect,
preserve and maintain the independence, sovereignty, defence of territory and
unity of the nation.</i>”<o:p></o:p></span></li><li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Article 146(2)(a) of the URT Constitution
– local government authorities - to ensure the enforcement of law and public
safety of the people<o:p></o:p></span></li><li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Sections 18 and 18A-C of the Penal Code -
defence of person or property/self-defence <o:p></o:p></span></li><li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The People’s Militia Laws (Miscellaneous
Amendment) Act (1989) recognize <i>Sungusungu</i><u><o:p></o:p></u></span></li><li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Section 16 of the Criminal Procedure Code
- Arrest by private persons<u><o:p></o:p></u></span></li><li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Companies Act and Police Force and
Auxiliary Police Act – <i>ulinzi shirikishi</i>/community
policing/self-help scheme, and private security firms – IGP’s permit/Police’s
control <u><o:p></o:p></u></span></li><li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Article 266(4) of the 2014 Draft
Constitution – “<i>it is hereby prohibited
for any person to establish an institution, a company, community or
organization which is concerned with the National defence and security or an
armed force, except under this Constitution or an Act of Parliament</i>.” <u><o:p></o:p></u></span></li><li>- Article 274 - “<i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">without prejudice to the provisions of
Article 266, Parliament may legislate for setting permit conditions in order to
establish, control and manage other institutions that provide defence services</i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">.”</span></li></ul><!--[if !supportLists]--><p></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">(f)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;"> <i>Legitimacy</i><b> </b>– the<b> </b>exercise of state power must be legitimate or the state requires
obedience to survive.</span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">Legitimacy
lies at the centre of state-citizen relationships and state-building agenda.</span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;"><br /></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">By
definition, ‘legitimacy’ entails an acceptance of authority by the
people/citizenry. In other words, ‘legitimacy’ is something that induces
voluntary support or obedience.</span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;"><br /></span></p>
<div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Legitimacy is a
vital feature of all power relations. Power is applied through coercion
(authoritarianism) if there is no legitimacy. However, with legitimacy, power is
exercised through voluntary or quasi-voluntary compliance.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div>
<p class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l32 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><br /></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l32 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Two
key questions guide our discussion: when and why do men obey? Upon what inner
justifications and upon what external means does this domination rest? In
response, legitimacy can be assessed ‘<i>normatively’</i>
and ‘<i>empirically’</i>. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">According to <b>Aoife McCullough</b>, a <i>normative approach</i> to state legitimacy,
which is based on western liberal values, understands a legitimate state as a
state that features democratic elections and respects human rights. To him, <i>an empirical approach</i> assesses
legitimacy through the perceptions and acts of consent by the governed and the
authorities in a given society.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Let
us now look at <b>Weber</b>, <b>Beetham,</b> and <b>Lamb’s</b> notions of legitimacy, which embody both normative and
empirical elements as follows:</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><b style="text-indent: -0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>i.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><b style="text-indent: -0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Max
Weber</span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Weber
understood legitimacy in terms of the different sources from which authority
arises. To him, there are three inner justifications, hence basic legitimations
of domination/obedience: <i>traditional, charismatic, and legal.</i></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><i style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Traditional domination</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;"> (the
authority of the past) - exercised by the patriarch and the patrimonial prince
– monarchies, who had hereditary right to rule, claimed to be God’s
representative on earth/God’s anointed servant, thus obeying them was to obey
God.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;"> <i>Charismatic
domination</i> - the authority of the extraordinary and personal <i>gift of grace</i> (<i>charisma</i>), the personal devotion and confidence in revelation,
heroism, or other qualities of individual leadership – <i>e.g.,</i> dominance exercised by the prophet, warlord, great
demagogue/orator, or the political party leader.</span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><i style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Legal justification</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
- domination by legality or belief in the validity of the law and functional
competence based on rationally created rules. In this case, obedience is
expected in discharging statutory obligations <i>– e.g.,</i> domination as exercised by the modern servant of the state/constitutionally
elected political leaders and civil/public servants.</span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><b style="text-indent: -0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>ii.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><b style="text-indent: -0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">David
Beetham</span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Beetham</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
proposes three dimensions of legitimacy (levels of symbiosis/interdependence): rules,
justification, and action. To him, for an authority to be legitimate, it must
conform to established rules; the rules must be justifiable in terms of
people’s beliefs; and there must be evidence of consent by the subordinate.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><i style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Legal validity</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">
- it conforms to established rules (power is legitimate where its acquisition
and exercise conform to established law). </span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><i style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Shared beliefs/moral justification</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">
- power is legitimate to the extent that the rules of power can be justified in
terms of beliefs shared by both dominant and subordinate.</span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><i style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Consent</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
- an expression of consent on the part of the subordinate to the particular
power relation in which they are involved through actions that provide evidence
of consent/support/obedience.</span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> <b> </b></span><b>iii.</b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"><b> </b>
</span></span><span style="text-indent: -0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>Robert
D. Lamb</b></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Lamb</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
balances Weber and Beetham’s understanding of legitimacy. He advocates
understanding legitimacy as multidimensional, multilevel, and bilateral. He introduces
five (5) features upon which legitimacy can be based: predictable, justifiable,
equitable, accessible, and respectful.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo16; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Predictable
- includes transparency and credibility<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo16; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Justifiable
- judgments about important values: what is right, good, proper, admirable<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo16; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Equitable
- ideas about fairness, that is, inequalities are justified<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo16; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Accessible
– people having a say in processes for making decisions that affect their lives
(a weak version of the consent)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo16; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Respectful
- treatment consistent with human dignity and pride<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Lamb</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
suggests that it is not the source of legitimacy that matters but rather the
features that the authority displays.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h1 style="margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo31; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><a name="_Toc121910217"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span color="windowtext" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span color="windowtext" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">Traditional Theories of State and Law</span></b></a><b><span color="windowtext" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></h1>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><i style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(a)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></i><i style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Divine/Idealist
Theory</span></i></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">God’s
arbitrary will/God’s embodiment or image on earth/natural law, i.e. a state is a
handiwork of God</span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo19; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The
oldest theory concerned with the origin of the state and law<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo19; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">This
theory was used in the medieval period to establish the supremacy of the church
over the state.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo19; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">It
claims that a state is established and governed by God himself by agent,
vicegerent, or vicar of God.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo19; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">It
cemented monarchism by proclaiming the King’s divine right to rule. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo19; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">People
have no right to rebel against the King; if so, it is against God himself.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo19; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Some
of the basic tenets of this theory are: monarchy is divinely ordained;
hereditary right is indefeasible, that means cannot be taken away; kings are
accountable to God alone; kings can do no wrong (above the law), and resistance
to a lawful king is a sin.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; margin-left: 0.25in; margin-right: 0in; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Examples:<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">King
James I</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> (UK), the first Stuart King, said, "<i>Kings are the breathing images of God upon
the earth</i>”.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Luis
XIV</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
(France) justified his despotism by saying “<i>I
am the state having full authority directly given by God</i>.”<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The
Hebrew Bible</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">/<b>Old
Testament<o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">God promised a
nation/state/land to the Jews or Israelites, the Lord had said to Abraham</span>
in <b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Genesis</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>12:1, 12:7, 15:7, 15:18–21, 26:3, 28:13
& 32:28</b>, "<i>Leave your
country, your people and your father's household and go to the land I will show
you</i>." See also <b>Exodus</b> <b>23:31</b> and <b>Deuteronomy 1:8 & 19:8–9</b>.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Note:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> The
notion of the <i>‘Promised Land’</i> is the basic
principle of <i>‘Zionism’</i> movement, i.e.,
the Jew people’s quest to restore the Jewish State.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">On the Government,
<b>Romans 13:1-2</b> says, "<i>Obey the government, for God is the One who
has put it there. There is no government anywhere that God has not placed in
power. So those who refuse to obey the law of the land are refusing to obey
God, and punishment will follow</i>."<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Note</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">:
<b>Articles 3(1), 9(g) and 19</b> of the <b>URT Constitution</b> reiterate that
Tanzania is a ‘<i>secular’</i> state that
respects the right of freedom of religion and prohibit religious discrimination.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l24 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span></i></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l24 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(b)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Social
Contract/Voluntarist/ Idealist Theory <o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 22.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo20; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The
prominent supporters of this theory are Glaucon, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and
Jean-Jacques Rousseau.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo20; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The
state is man-made by the contract to protect the people, <i>i.e.,</i> it is an artificial creation, not natural.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo20; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">At
some point in their history, certain peoples spontaneously, rationally, and
voluntarily gave up their sovereignties and united with other communities to
form a larger political unit deserving to be called a state. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo20; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">To
them, a state results from a deliberate and voluntary contract of a primitive
man emerging from a “<i>state of nature</i>”
or “<i>harms</i>”.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo20; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Before
the state, pre-social communities/people experienced the “state of nature.”<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo20; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Aristotle</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> view
a man as a social animal. This social animal development is enriched under the
proper guidance of state. State is indispensable to effective organization and
realization of moral ends.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo20; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Glaucon</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">,
in <b>Plato’s</b> <i>Republic (Book II)</i>, gives an early version of a ‘<i>contract view of society</i>.’<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo20; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">To
him, individuals created a state, law, and social order because they wanted to
call a truce whereby they signed or made a compact or contract in which they
agreed not to harm each other<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo20; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">The
state or society exists because individuals make a compact not to harm each
other and to protect their own self-interests <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo20; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Therefore,
the state or society is a mutual agreement of not harming one another<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo20; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">According
to <b>Hobbes</b>, in the “state of nature”,
life was short, solitary, nasty, and brutish – anarchy/lawlessness and constant
loss of life and property. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo20; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The
state came into being by the “social contract” with the surrender of power to self-rule
to absolute monarchy in exchange for protection (<i>monopoly thesis</i>).<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo20; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Without
law, humans are at war with each other but know it is in their interest to seek
peace.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo20; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">They
can get peace only by agreeing with each other to subject themselves to a
common ruler who exercises the whole power of the community.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo20; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Locke</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
describes the “state of nature” as a pre-political and everything was regulated
by natural law, but to execute that law, the state originated from the “social
contract” and people chose the constitutional government and limited monarchy/government
<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo20; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">On
the contrary, <b>Rousseau</b> describes
people in the “state of nature” as peaceful, carefree life/paradise, happiness,
but after the advent of economic need, social strife began, and society became
pre-social. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo20; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The
state originated through a “social contract” with the agreement to govern the territory
under “general will” based on popular sovereignty.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo20; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The
objective of the social or political or government contract was to secure the
“life, property, and liberty” of the people.
<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo20; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Governmental
authority, if it is to be legitimate, must ultimately rest on the consent of
the people.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo20; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">State
and law emerge as an organ of reconciliation of classes or mediating
conflicting class interests<i>, i.e.,</i> to
bring harmony and protect life, liberty and property <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo20; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Law
and state are not impositions but rather a result of a ‘general will’ or ‘consensus’
<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Strength
<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Many states allow
the governed to vote and recall their governors/leaders/representatives (enfranchisement)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Article 5(l) of
the URT Constitution, for example, provides that “<i>every citizen of the United Republic who has attained the age of
eighteen years is entitled to vote in any public election held in Tanzania</i>”.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Critique</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">:
<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The social
contract has no truth but rather a historical fiction or mythical account of
how the state and law originally came about, <i>i.e.,</i> there is no trace in any history about such a contract. These
contractual forms have no binding force because the state of nature cannot
create legal validity. Besides, voluntary relations between individuals and the
state seems unreasonable; if so state becomes like a company. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0.75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l24 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span></i></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0.75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l24 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(c)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Marxist
/ Historical materialism/Class/Conflict</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> <i>Theory<o:p></o:p></i></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 8.0pt; margin-left: 22.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; margin: 12pt 0in 8pt 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l20 level1 lfo21; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Propounded
by <i>Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels </i>- gentile/primitive,
slave, feudal, capitalist, and socialist/communist states/laws<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 8.0pt; margin-left: 22.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; margin: 12pt 0in 8pt 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l20 level1 lfo21; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Before
the state (pre-social period), communities were governed by natural law (law of
nature)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 8.0pt; margin-left: 22.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; margin: 12pt 0in 8pt 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l20 level1 lfo21; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The
state emerged when the development of the productive forces gave rise to antagonistic
social relations (class struggle)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l20 level1 lfo21; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The
state emerged as an organ of class rule<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 8.0pt; margin-left: 22.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; margin: 12pt 0in 8pt 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l20 level1 lfo21; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The
class structure of a state is linked with the development of production <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 8.0pt; margin-left: 22.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; margin: 12pt 0in 8pt 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l20 level1 lfo21; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The
development of production led to the division of labour and specialisation <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 8.0pt; margin-left: 22.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; margin: 12pt 0in 8pt 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l20 level1 lfo21; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Division
of labour led to insubordination and political representations (e.g., chiefs)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 8.0pt; margin-left: 22.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; margin: 12pt 0in 8pt 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l20 level1 lfo21; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The
economically dominant class emerges as the ruling class, which consolidates its
power by oppressing and exploiting the weaker class</span></p>
<div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; margin-left: 49.5pt; margin-right: 0in; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt;">
<p align="center" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; margin: 12pt 0in 8pt; padding: 0in; text-align: center;"><i><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium; line-height: 115%;">Development
in production – surplus<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; margin: 12pt 0in 8pt; padding: 0in; text-align: center;"><i><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium; line-height: 115%;">Division
of labour and specialisation – wealth<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; margin: 12pt 0in 8pt; padding: 0in; text-align: center;"><i><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium; line-height: 115%;">Insubordination/subjugation
and political representations - classes<o:p></o:p></span></i></p><p align="center" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; margin: 12pt 0in 8pt; padding: 0in; text-align: center;"><i><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium; line-height: 115%;">Class struggle/antagonistic social relations - conflicts</span></i></p><p align="center" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; margin: 12pt 0in 8pt; padding: 0in; text-align: center;"><i><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium; line-height: 115%;">Dominant class/ruling class emerges to form a state and impose laws</span></i></p>
<br /></div>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l20 level1 lfo21; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><br /></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l20 level1 lfo21; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Law
emerges as an indispensable feature/part of class rule/state whereby it
legalises/legitimises itself, maintains and reproduces class relations (status
quo) – the ruling class maintain itself through coercion<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l20 level1 lfo21; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The
ruling class use law to establish state ideological apparatuses, e.g., police, Court,
army, parliament, etc.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l20 level1 lfo21; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The
state defines and imposes sanctions on forms of behaviours that threaten its
reproduction/continuity/existence by monopolising the use of force</span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 0.75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l24 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(d)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Force/Coercive/Colonisation
Theory</span></i></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 27pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo22; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Advocated
by Herbert Spencer, Ludwig Gumplowicz, Gustav Ratzenhofer, and Franz
Oppenheimer, Hume, Jenks-Bernhard, and Treitschke</span></p>
<div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; margin-left: 0.5in; margin-right: 0in; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt;">
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; margin-left: 0in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Edward
Jenks</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> suggests that historically speaking, there is not the
slightest difficulty in proving that all political communities of the modern
type [that is, states] owe their existence to successful warfare.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; margin-left: 0in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Thomas
Hobbes</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> claims that rulers or sovereigns can come into being
by conquest as well as by consent and hold power so long as their rule is
effective, giving enough people a strong enough sense of the advantages derived
from the settled government to make them effective collaborators in upholding
the one in power.</span></p></div>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 27pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo22; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><br /></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 27pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo22; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Force
(and not enlightened self-interest) is the mechanism by which political
evolution has led, step by step, from autonomous villages to the state.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 27pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo22; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">War
lies at the root of the state<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 27pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo22; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The
state was born of force, <i>i.e.,</i> the
state is the result of the superior physical force and subjugation of the weaker
section by the stronger<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 27pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo22; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">It
emphasises the principle of the survival of the fittest<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 27pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo22; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">One
person or a small group of people claimed control of an area and forced
everyone within that area to submit to their rule<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 27pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo22; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The
state originated due to the force exerted by the strong over the weak. The idea
contained in the statement is that <i>'war
begat the king</i>'. </span></p>
<div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; margin-left: 0.5in; margin-right: 0in; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt;">
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; margin-left: 0in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Examples:</span></b></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; margin-left: 0in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Historical or
archaeological evidence of war is found in the early stages of state formation
in Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, China, Japan, Greece, Rome, Northern Europe,
Central Africa, Polynesia, Middle America, Peru, and Colombia.</span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; margin-left: 0in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Formation of the State of
Israel (1948/9) in the Palestine’s land or the State of South Sudan in Sudan
Republic.</span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Critique</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">:</span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; margin-left: 0in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">This theory justifies
despotism as opposed to the idea of liberty and self-determination.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l24 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span></i></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l24 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(e)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;">Evolutionary/Historical/
Political Consciousness Theory <o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></i></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 22.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l28 level1 lfo23; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;">Advocated by John.
W. Burgess, Maclaver, Garner, and Gettell<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l28 level1 lfo23; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The
state is a result of natural evolution, <i>i.e.,</i>
a gradual (slow) evolutionary process <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l28 level1 lfo23; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">State
development is a by-product of history, <i>i.e.,</i>
the state is the product of growth, a slow and steady evolution extending over
a long period and ultimately shaping itself into the complex structure of a
modern state.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l28 level1 lfo23; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The
state is neither the handiwork of God, the result of a superior physical force,
the creation of a resolution or contract, nor the mere expansion of the family.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l28 level1 lfo23; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The
key factors which played a part in the evolution of the state are natural
social instinct, kinship and family, autonomous village, religion, force,
economic needs and activities and political consciousness.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l28 level1 lfo23; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The
family, the basic unit of socialization, was the sole creator of the state and
one of the factors in its development.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l28 level1 lfo23; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The
state originated from a clan-band structure which explains the formation of the
world's first political structures, e.g., the AL Saud family in Saudi Arabia
(Monarchy) has produced a leader to rule over the people since 1744.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l28 level1 lfo23; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">As
people increased in number, it became more important to gather the people in
order.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; margin-left: 0.5in; margin-right: 0in; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Example:<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Formation of the
United Republic of Tanzania in 1964 – a conscious decision/rational choice made
to unite Tanganyika and Zanzibar. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 0.75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l24 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span></i></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 0.75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l24 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(f)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Ecological
hypothesis or circumscription theory</span></i></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 0.75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l24 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; text-indent: -0.25in;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;">Robert Carneiro</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; text-indent: -0.25in;"> rejects traditional theories of state and
law in favour of the ecological hypothesis.</span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 0.75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l24 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; text-indent: -0.25in;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">He
claims that the state is a predictable response to specific cultural,
demographic, and ecological conditions.</span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 0.75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l24 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; text-indent: -0.25in;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">Therefore,
the ecological thesis stresses environmental and social circumscriptions,
resource concentration, and political evolution as the foundational blocks of
state and law.</span></p>
<div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; margin-left: 4.5pt; margin-right: 0in; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The strength of the
Carneiro approach is that it explains why states arose where they did and
failed to arise elsewhere. <a name="_Toc121910218"><o:p></o:p></a></span></p>
</div>
<h1 style="margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo31; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span color="windowtext" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span color="windowtext" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">Relationship between State and Law</span></b></h1>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">MacCormick’s</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
typologies:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo24; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(a)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">State
as law-dependent</span></i></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 8.0pt; margin-left: 22.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; margin: 12pt 0in 8pt 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo26; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The
state may be thought as a creation of the law, <i>i.e.,</i> the state is nothing without the law<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo26; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">This
position depends on the ‘natural law’ or ‘natural rights’ theory<i>, i.e.,</i> law of nature preceded the state
and after the state was formed it depended on the ‘natural law’ for survival<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo26; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Law
is perceived and presented as something anterior and superior to the state
itself<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; margin-left: 4.5pt; margin-right: 0in; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Example:
<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Tanzania became a
state after signing the Articles of Union of Tanganyika and Zanzibar on 22
April 1964 by Julius Nyerere and Abeid Amani Karume. Thus, the Articles of the
Union (law) preceded the Union (state) and created the Union. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo26; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><br /></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo26; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">State
and state institutions were preceded by private actors and natural laws <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo26; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">State,
as we know it today, emerged after the Peace of Westphalia of 1648<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo26; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Whoever
is found in the position of exercising governance in human society has to make
specific rules and ordinances for governing it and ensure that right conduct is
upheld and wrongdoing is adequately restrained and, when necessary, punished
appropriately.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo26; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The
upheavals of the reformation led to increasing difficulty in accounting for the
legitimacy of one ruling house or party over another, indeed for the legitimacy
of governments at all.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo26; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">In
response, there emerged ‘social contract’ theories in various forms.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo26; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">According
to <b>John Locke</b>’s idea of rational
natural law, even in a ‘state of nature’, that is, outside any form of
political organization, humans would have rights and owe each other
corresponding obligations.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo26; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">To
avoid a spiral of violence and private action to enforce order, persons in the
state of nature would therefore have compelling reasons to agree on
establishing a government.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo26; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">That
government would be charged with upholding everybody's rights and legislating
in clear terms common provisions identifying and delimiting otherwise
dangerously vague rights.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo26; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">To
this end, the agencies required for a secure government would include a
legislature, an independent judiciary, and an executive branch concerned with
external protection and internal law enforcement (<b>Charles Montesquieu’s</b> version of the separation of power).</span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 0.75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo24; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(b)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Law
as state-dependent</span></i></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo27; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The
law is nothing without the state<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo27; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The
state may be perceived as the unique producer of anything properly describable
as ‘law’<i>, i.e.,</i> state and state
institutions predate the ‘law’ as Medieval Monarchies were law in themselves. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo27; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Some
scholars find ‘natural law’ or ‘natural rights’ profoundly implausible<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo27; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">To
them, human governments make laws, and some of these laws confer rights<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo27; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The
only genuine rights humans can have are those that the state is powerful enough
to enact or recognise and enforce or secure<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo27; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">There
is no law anterior to the state, for the law is the creature of the established
human ruler and is explicable simply in terms of the will and command of the
ruler.‘<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo27; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Stable
governments exist where there are stable habits of obedience, and the law is
none other than the commands of those who are habitually obeyed.</span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo24; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(c)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">State
and law coexist but are not identical</span></i></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l26 level1 lfo28; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">This
approach faults the first two thoughts in that they do not consider the
evolution of society, state, and law.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l26 level1 lfo28; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">Law
and government should be seen as historically co-evolving systems, with state-made
law as simply one form of law,' most secure and genuinely law when supported
by and partly grounded in custom rather than mere force.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l26 level1 lfo28; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The
state may be thought coexistent with the law but not fully identical to it <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l26 level1 lfo28; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Existence
of several identical orders - it is possible for several orders to coexist (<i>legal pluralism</i>), e.g., law merchant
(regulating international trading) coexist with Customary, Canon, and Islamic
laws (regulating the respective organisations, family relations, and
succession).<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l26 level1 lfo28; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The
above laws could coexist with those administered by the Courts (Judiciary) or
in quasi-judicial bodies.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l26 level1 lfo28; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Centralization
of governmental power was part of the evolution of the state as a form of
polity.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l26 level1 lfo28; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The
tendency to establish a monopoly over law should not blind us to forgetting the
law rooted in the usages and practices of humans in social coexistence.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l26 level1 lfo28; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Contemporary
societies have many forms of normative or institutional normative orders independent
of the state, even though the state may purport to regulate them under overall
sovereign authority.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l26 level1 lfo28; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Those
who seek to exercise political power in society wish to assert the power of
changing the rules by which people live, superseding older forms and imposing
new ones, and organizing sanctions to establish the force and authority of the
state order.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l26 level1 lfo28; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Unless
the legitimacy of state-made law is established as a part of popular custom, a law
promulgated by the state in these circumstances will be a very inferior species
of the genus.</span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo24; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(d)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">State
and law are identical/false dualism of state and law/ identity of law and state<o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 22.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 22.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l30 level1 lfo29; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">State
and law are two sides of the same coin<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 22.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l30 level1 lfo29; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><br /></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 22.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l30 level1 lfo29; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The
state and the law may be considered identical as they have the same object but
are viewed differently.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 22.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l30 level1 lfo29; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></p>
<div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; margin-left: 22.5pt; margin-right: 0in; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt;">
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Identity
of law and state (Hans Kelsen)<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The state does not
make the law and vice versa. In truth, they are the same object viewed
differently.</span></p></div>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l30 level1 lfo29; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><br /></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l30 level1 lfo29; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">The
state is simply the point of imputation to which public legal acts are imputed<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l30 level1 lfo29; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">State
actors are not the only ones who provide social services such as hospitals,
water, security, and education. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l30 level1 lfo29; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">Acts
of individuals are imputed/attributed to the state as the single organized
reference point behind the myriad of human actions.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 22.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l30 level1 lfo29; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">§<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Therefore,
a state becomes a corporate entity comprising the principal organs of government
organized through public law.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 22.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 22.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></p>
<div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; margin-left: 22.5pt; margin-right: 0in; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt;">
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Similarities
between the 1<sup>st</sup> and 4<sup>th</sup> approaches of state and law
(Locke and Kelsen)<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
</div>
<div style="background: rgb(231, 230, 230); border: 1pt solid windowtext; margin-left: 4.5pt; margin-right: 0in; mso-background-themecolor: background2; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 1pt 4pt;">
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.25in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Any state has to have a constitution that
confers the general powers of government, and all the state's law then depends
on being valid under the Constitution.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.25in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The constitutional legitimacy of
law-making and law-applying follows from the fact that there is a constitution
that ought to be respected and that cannot be respected save by accepting laws
validly enacted under it and accepting the judicial application and police
enforcement of the enacted laws.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.25in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Any person can be a head of state, or any
gathering of persons, a parliament or congress, or any group a bench of judges,
requires there to be some constitution to which we can look as defining and
conferring these offices.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: none; line-height: 115%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.25in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Imputation of acts to a state does require
just such a constitutional organization.</span></p></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">Questions <o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 63.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 63pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;"><br /></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo32; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"></p><ul><li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">Based
on the findings of the Court in <i>S.M.Z. v.
Machano Khamis Ali & 17 Others</i><b> </b>[2000]
TZCA 1, what is a state in the Tanzanian context? <o:p></o:p></span></li><li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">Is
the Constitution a social contract entered into by persons exercising
contractual powers conferred by the law of nature?<o:p></o:p></span></li><li><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%; text-indent: -0.25in;">What
are the functions of the state and law? (Parts 1 and 2 above – Marxist and
Bourgeois views)</span></li></ul><!--[if !supportLists]--><p></p>
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<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 63.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 63pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><a name="_Toc121910219"><b><span color="windowtext" style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">Readings</span></b></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Austin, J., <i>The Province of Jurisprudence Determined</i> <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Beetham, D., <i>The Legitimation of Power</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Bodin, J.,<i> De la Republique (‘The Republic’) <o:p></o:p></i></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Brierly, J.L. and Waldock, H. <i>The Law of Nations: An Introduction to the
International Law of Peace, 6<sup>th</sup> Ed.<o:p></o:p></i></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Carneiro, R.L., <i>A Theory of the Origin of the State<o:p></o:p></i></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Carneiro, R.L., Ed., <i>The Evolution of Society; Selections from Herbert Spencer's Principles
of Sociology</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Denisov, A., <i>Theory of State and Law</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Engels, F., <i>The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Fuller, L., <i>The Morality of Law</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Hart, H.L.A., <i>The Concept of Law</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Hobbes, T., <i>De Cive ('On the Citizen')<o:p></o:p></i></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Hobbes, T.,<i> Leviathan<o:p></o:p></i></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Jenks, E.,<i> A History of Politics<o:p></o:p></i></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Kelsen, H., <i>General Theory of State and Law (The Pure Theory of Law)</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Lamb, R.D., <i>Rethinking Legitimacy and Illegitimacy: A New Approach to Assessing
Support and Opposition across Disciplines</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Lenin, V.I., <i>State and Revolution: Selected Works, Vol. II<o:p></o:p></i></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Locke, J., <i>Second Treatise of Government</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">MacCormick, <i>N., Questioning Sovereignty: Law, State, and Nation in the European Commonwealth</i>
<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Machiavelli, N.,<i> The Prince <o:p></o:p></i></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Maina, C.P., <i>Human Rights in Tanzania: Selected Cases and Material<o:p></o:p></i></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Marx, K., <i>The Communist Manifesto</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">McCullough, A., <i>The legitimacy of states and armed non-state actors: Topic guide</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Montesquieu, C., <i>L’Esprit des Lois</i> <i>(The Spirit
of Laws)</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Oppenheim, L., <i>International Law: A Treatise.</i> Vol. I: Peace. (8<sup>th</sup> Edn.
edited by H. Lauterpacht.) <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Oppenheimer, F.,<i> The State (Transl. Gitterman, J.M.)<o:p></o:p></i></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Pashukanis, E., <i>The Marxist Theory of State and Law<o:p></o:p></i></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Rousseau,<i> Contrat Social (‘Social Contract’)<o:p></o:p></i></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Weber, M., <i>Politics as a Vocation</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>jabahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02886069170766354845noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-13519298994348805.post-59237219367047229102019-08-20T19:27:00.002+03:002019-08-20T19:28:30.077+03:00Tanzania: New move to hasten commercial cases<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b>Dodoma.</b> </div>
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<i>Tanzania is seeking to increase the jurisdiction of lower courts to handle commercial disputes as a measure to reduce the backlog of cases at the Commercial Division of the High Court.</i></div>
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Resident magistrates’ courts will be allowed to handle commercial cases with up to Shs. 100 million in value involved, up from Shs. 50 million capped by the current law. The maximum threshold for the district magistrates’ courts will also more than double from the Shs. 30 million currently to Shs. 70 million. The changes are part of the proposals in the Written Laws (Miscellaneous Amendments) (N0.4) Bill 2019 which was tabled in Parliament for first reading in June this year. The bill seeks to amend section 40(3) of the Magistrates’ Courts Act which is the principal legislation, among other acts. The bill is among the proposed laws which will be deliberated in the Parliament’s committee sessions which kicked off in Dodoma yesterday. “The amendment aims at reducing backlog of cases that can be tried in the High Court Commercial Division,” states the proposed law in its objectives and reasons for the amendment. The bill seeks to amend seven laws including the Criminal Procedure Act by introducing plea bargaining – the system that will allow the prosecutor and the accused to negotiate in a criminal case whereby the accused will agree to plead guilty to a particular charge for some concessions.</div>
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The introduction of the plea bargaining system into Tanzania is also aimed at reducing case backlogs, prison congestions and ensure timely delivery of justice, according to the bill. The bill also intends to amend the National Prosecutions Service Act by decentralizing the powers of the director of public prosecutions to his subordinates. The proposed amendment states that the DPP may specify offences or set threshold of value involved in a case in which his subordinates may provide consent for prosecution on his behalf. This is applicable in cases which require the consent of the DPP before they are commenced in courts of law. Files of such cases are currently sent to the headquarters of the National Prosecutions Services for approvals but once the proposed changes are passed by the Parliament, it will be done in the respective regions. “This will speed the process of obtaining consent,” states the bill. The amendment also intends to give the DPP powers to compound offences and ask authorized officers to submit reports on the same.</div>
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The Commercial Division of the High Court of Tanzania has jurisdiction in commercial cases in which the value of the claim is at least Shs.100 million in case of proceedings for recovery of possession of immovable property and at least Shs. 70 million in proceedings where the subject matter is capable of being estimated at a money value. It was established to provide a positive climate for investments and install confidence within the business community in the country’s judicial system. The Commercial Court is intended <span style="text-align: justify;">to resolve disputes of a commercial nature. However, the court has no exclusive mandatory jurisdiction to hear and determine commercial dispute as a potential commercial litigant has the option of instituting a commercial case either in the Ordinary Registry of the High Court or in the Commercial Division of the High Court.</span></div>
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<b>Source:</b> <i>The Citizen Newspaper (20/08/2019) - by Sharon Sauwa and Alawi Masare.</i></div>
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jabahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02886069170766354845noreply@blogger.com0Dodoma, Tanzania-6.1629590000000007 35.75160690000007-6.4155440000000006 35.428883400000068 -5.9103740000000009 36.074330400000072tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-13519298994348805.post-88010581191225460102019-02-19T19:24:00.000+03:002019-02-19T19:24:13.631+03:00Tanzania jails Chinese 'Ivory Queen' 15 years for smuggling<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<i>A Tanzanian court sentenced a prominent Chinese businesswoman dubbed the “Ivory Queen” to 15 years in prison on Tuesday for smuggling the tusks of more than 350 elephants to Asia – a big victory in the battle to stamp out poaching in Africa.</i></div>
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Yang Feng Glan had been charged in October 2015 along with two Tanzanian men with smuggling 860 pieces of ivory between 2000 and 2004 worth 13 billion shillings ($5.6 million). She denied the charges. ($1 = 2,325 Tanzanian shillings).</div>
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Police sources said Yang, 69, had lived in Tanzania since the 1970s and was secretary-general of the Tanzania China-Africa Business Council. A Swahili-speaker, she also owns a popular Chinese restaurant in Dar es Salaam.</div>
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Kisutu Court Magistrate Huruma Shaidi sentenced Yang, Salivius Matembo and Manase Philemon to 15 years in prison on convictions of leading an organised criminal gang.</div>
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Shaidi also ordered them to either pay twice the market value of the elephant tusks or face another two years in prison.</div>
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In court documents, prosecutors said Glan “intentionally did organise, manage and finance a criminal racket by collecting, transporting or exporting and selling government trophies” weighing a total of 1.889 tonnes.</div>
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Demand for ivory from Asian countries such as China and Vietnam, where it is turned into jewels and ornaments, has led to a surge in poaching across Africa.</div>
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Tanzania’s elephant population shrank from 110,000 in 2009 to little more than 43,000 in 2014, according to a 2015 census, with conservation groups blaming “industrial-scale” poaching.</div>
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In March 2016, Tanzania sentenced two Chinese men to 35 years each in jail for ivory smuggling, while in December 2015 another court sentenced four Chinese men to 20 years in jail each after they were convicted of smuggling rhino horns.</div>
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<b>Source: Reuters (19/02/2019)</b></div>
jabahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02886069170766354845noreply@blogger.com0Tanzania-6.369028 34.888822000000005-22.3207485 14.234525000000005 9.5826925 55.543119000000004tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-13519298994348805.post-45120344186245065532019-01-18T18:17:00.002+03:002019-01-18T18:17:28.013+03:00Kenya: Private guards to carry guns<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b><i>Private security guards manning public places will now be licensed to carry firearms while on duty after fresh training and vetting, authorities said Friday. </i></b></div>
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The Private Security Regulatory Authority CEO Fazul Mohamed said this will happen in six months’ time.</div>
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Mr Mohamed spoke at the Nairobi Railways Club where all senior supervisors and managers of security firms had converged to discuss modalities of the arming of private guards in the wake of the terrorist attack in Nairobi Tuesday that left 21 people dead.</div>
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The official said the proposal has been work in progress and had the blessings of the Interior ministry in collaboration with other national security organs.</div>
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"Those to be armed are in government and public installations and those in cash in transit. We are preparing for a thorough vetting of employers and guards to ensure its success," he said.</div>
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Before they are issued with specific firearms, Mr Mohamed said employers should ensure that their staff get a mandatory insurance cover.</div>
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"Security guards especially in malls form the first line of defence against terrorists and other criminal elements. If we trust them with such establishment why not trust them with firearms?" he asked.</div>
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There will be also be uniform salary structure for guard working during the day and night.</div>
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"We have been complementing the national government on security matters and we are happy that we have recognised for that contribution. We request that the process of setting up an academy for training purposes be expedited," he said.</div>
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Kenya National Private Security Workers Union Secretary-General Isaac Andabwa welcomed the proposal adding their welfare should be improved.</div>
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<b>Source:</b> <i>Daily Nation</i> (18/01/2019) - Kennedy Kimanthi.</div>
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jabahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02886069170766354845noreply@blogger.com0Nairobi, Kenya-1.2920659 36.821946199999957-1.5460584000000002 36.499222699999955 -1.0380734 37.144669699999959tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-13519298994348805.post-25517426772137642232018-11-26T15:36:00.001+03:002018-11-26T15:36:31.969+03:00Scotland Yard: Government didn’t kill Kayiira<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<i>In the conclusion of their report on the Andrew Kayiira killing, Scotland Yard made their observations on the information they gathered from the scene and from witness testimonies. Before coming to Uganda, they were cautioned of the political sensitivity of the case and they were advised to watch out for any form of political influence and report it immediately.</i></div>
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With no such influence to report of, the investigating officer concluded that government soldiers were not involved in the killing despite some of the attackers having either a shirt or trouser that looked like military fatigue. Their conclusion was a robbery gone bad – basing on the evidence that one of the suspects was identified by the victim and he shot him to kill evidence.</div>
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The question was whether the robbery was planned. What was left hanging was the fact that upon release from prison, Kayiira had asked his friend Gombya for all the money he had allegedly received on his behalf. </div>
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Two months after their departure from Uganda, Gombya and his wife were interviewed by two Ugandan police officers. There were some inconsistencies in the interviews. Contradictions were noted in what Gombya told the police officers and what he had written in newspaper articles after the killing. He admitted in some parts of the interview that some of the things he said were based on hearsay.</div>
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Though the witnesses said the money was delivered to Gombya’s office in two batches in Kayiira’s presence and it was put in his car, Gombya insisted that Kayiira had no idea there was money either in his car or in the house. What is not clear is how the money was removed from the car boot without the car owner’s knowledge. Also that same night, they first went to a bar for drinks before getting home at around 10pm. Later that night, Kayiira sent Gombya to buy radio batteries as they wanted to play music and there was no power.</div>
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The inconsistences in Ms Gombya’s statement centre on the events of that night. In her Kampala police report, she said her and the girls they were with were locked up in the bathroom and did not see what happened yet in the London report she said she was in the corridors and saw the attackers enter Kayiira’s bedroom. Among the recorded stolen items from the home was Gombya’s camera but he admitted being the one who took the photos of Kayiira’s dead body and distributed them to newspapers. In his conclusion, Detective Thompson says: “Mr and Ms Gombya are basically telling the truth in respect of the events leading to the murder of Dr Kayiira; Mr Gombya, certainly either for ‘political’ reasons or otherwise is not being fully forthcoming with all he knows about the circumstances surrounding the murder on March 6, 1987.”</div>
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<b>Kayiira betrayed by a woman?</b></div>
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72. It will be seen from the foregoing report that there are many options as to the type of persons who committed the offence and the motive behind it.</div>
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73. The original option that the president’s own men were behind the murder of Kayiira was in fact the strongest one when the British police officers arrived in Uganda, despite the fact that five men had been arrested. All of the suspects except one are ex-UFM men and this did not assist to quell the rumours abounding [in] Kampala. The main options are:- (1) It was robbery that went wrong when one of the suspects panicked and shot Kayiira. (2) That the suspects knew Kayiira was living at Gombya’s address, were aware that a large sum of money (Shs50 million) had been delivered to Gombya’s office when Kayiira was present and presumed that it was for Kayiira and not Gombya. (3) Had been informed that upon Kayiira’s release, he had asked for Gombya to supply him the money, which it was rumoured Gombya had received from abroad on behalf of Kayiira for his army forces, and went to rob him. (4) A combination of any of the above three with the situation presenting itself that, as alleged by the informant, the suspects, all being ex-UFM men, went to rob Kayiira and one of their number (WADDA) was recognised by Kayiira and he had to shoot him to prevent later identification to police. (5) Option 3 with the added ingredient that Gombya set up the robbery himself to solve his problems in having to return Kayiira’s money. Gombya’s actions, upon his escape, helps to support this theory.(6) The President’s own forces were behind that murder because the courts had released Kayiira for lack of evidence.</div>
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74. It is the reporting officers’ opinion that on the evidence available, government forces were not behind [the] murder of Kayiira and that the suspects knowing that he was living at Gombya’s address and having been given information that a large sum of money was on the premises and further believing it to be Kayiira’s, simply set out to rob him of it. During the robbery, one was recognised and shot him. Option 4 is, therefore, the most likely conclusion.</div>
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75. Until Gombya is interviewed at length by the Uganda Police, it is impossible to be certain of his implication in this offence if in fact he is involved and this must, therefore, remain a matter of conjecture.</div>
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76. However, he was seen on May 1, 1987, by areporting officer in London and has agreed to be interviewed by police from Uganda. Arrangements are being made through I.C.P.O. for this to be done.</div>
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77. In conclusion, [Detective Sergeant Sanderson and I would like to express our gratitude] for the assistance and co-operation given by both the Uganda Police and Ugandan authorities and also the British High Commissioner, Uganda.</div>
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78. Submitted for information with a request that a copy of the report be forwarded to the Foreign & Commonwealth Office for their information and that the British High Commissioner in Kampala, and a copy forwarded to Mr Luke Ofungi, the Inspector General of Police, Kampala, Uganda.</div>
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79. With further reference to the investigations into the murder of Dr [Andrew Kayiira, 46], on March 6, 1987, at Lukuli-Konge Village, Kampala, Uganda and in particular to paragraph 76 of my report dated May 7, 1987.</div>
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80. On Sunday, May 24, 1987, the Director of CID-Uganda Samuel Mugambya together with Deputy Assistant Inspector George Byabashaija travelled to London in order to interview [Mr Henry Gombya, 34, and his ‘wife’ Vicky Naava Mugerwa, 23], both of whom give their address as 15, Crawford Place, London, W.1.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
81.On Tuesday, May 26, 1987, Mr Gombya attended New Scotland Yard with his legal representative Mr Akena Adoko and was interviewed by two Ugandan police officers. A written statement was taken from Gombya by the Ugandan officers and signed by him.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
82. On Wednesday, May 27, 1987, Gombya’s ‘wife’ Vicky Mugerwa attended New Scotland Yard and was also interviewed by the two Ugandan police officers and a signed written statement taken. This was also in the presence of Mr Adoko. Mr Gombya was not present.</div>
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Escape. The thugs flee after killing Dr Andrew</div>
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Escape. The thugs flee after killing Dr Andrew Kayiira.</div>
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<br /></div>
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83. It should be pointed out at this stage that Mr Adoko is the cousin of former president Milton Obote.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
84. As the original statements are in the possession of the Ugandan police officers, it is not the intention to fully reiterate the full contents of the statements by the Gombyas but to highlight the main salient points. Copies of the full statements are attached to the main correspondence.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
85. The Gombya’s married ‘customarily’ in July 1986 and lived at Entebbe Airport Hotel for eight months. Mr Gombya has another wife by the name of Penina and has four children by his marriage (three boys and one girl).</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
86. In February/March 1986, they moved to Lukuli Konge Village near Kampala, in a large three-bedroom house rented for the sum of Shs1.4 million per month (700 pounds) by Gombya and where Andrew Kayiira lived upon his release from prison on February 24, 1987, and where he was subsequently murdered on March 6, 1987.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
87. Apparently, Mr Gombya first met Kayiira during peace talks in August 1985 at Hotel Intercontinental-Nairobi and a man named Aloysius Bossa of Munno Publications was also present. Since that date, Mr Gombya states he had regular contacts with Kayiira, including a time in 1986 when he accompanied him on a tour of western Uganda. Dr Kayiira was a minister at that time.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
88. Since then, both Gombya and Kayiira had been friends and one of the reasons that Gombya allowed him to move into his house upon his release from prison was that Kayiira had protected him in 1985 during the regime of Tito Okello when Gombya’s house was raided by soldiers of the Ugandan National Liberation Army (UNLA). In fact it was Gombya who Kayiira approached in order to be interviewed for BBC upon his release from prison.</div>
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89. It is also interesting to note that Gombya also allowed Kayiira to use his Kampala office and also [as a contact address].</div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
90. In respect of the Shs40 million (20,000 pounds) referred to in the previous report, Gombya states he received it in two parts from a businessman named Katerega and was for ‘my personal expenses, including my birthday party’. He also states that the money ‘was neither borrowed nor donated to me by Katerega but it was for business purposes’.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
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91. The money was in bundles of Shs5 million and consisted of 5,000 notes, which were placed by Gombya in a cardboard box.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
92. Gombya stated that Kayiira only saw Shs20 million being delivered and would not have been aware of the remaining money. This surely cannot be so if it is remembered that two witnesses state that the money, Shs50 million not Shs40 million, was in fact delivered in two parts, that is Shs10 million and Shs40 million, and Dr Kayiira was present in Gombya’s office when the cash was delivered and would have seen it. Further, Gombya states that his office messenger, Edward Lubwama, put it in Kayiira’s car boot and also that a friend named Kadduke had locked the car boot after it was closed.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
93. Gombya and Kayiira subsequently returned home at about 10pm after they had stopped for drinks at a bar and also dropped off two girls. At the house when they arrived, apart from Gombya’s family, was Kayiira’s friend named Kayiwa and also Gombya’s office manager, Hussein Kabogoza. Although both these persons left shortly after Gombya’s arrival, he is sure that they did not know of the large amount of money that he had.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
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94. Between 10.30pm and 11.30pm, Gombya went out at Kayiira’s request and purchased batteries for the radio. Upon his return, they and the family were dancing and eating on the patio outside the house when they were attacked by a group of about 10 men who had torches and came from around both sides of the house.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
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95. The attackers were in different states of dress; some had shirts (combat), some did not, and some, according to Gombya, had clothing similar to that worn by the National Resistance Army. Only two of the attackers had guns described by Gombya as AK47 and the person apparently giving the command was in civilian clothes. The language used was Luganda.</div>
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<br /></div>
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96. The sequence of the events that subsequently took place is confusing due to the darkness (no electricity) as described in paragraph 30-37 in the previous report. Suffice it to say Ms Gombya confirms her earlier statement to police although this time she states she was in the corridor and saw the attackers go into Kayiira’s bedroom and shoot him, whereas in the previous statement she was in the bathroom with other members of the family and did not see what happened.</div>
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97. Gombya’s description of events is still basically consistent with that given in his earlier statement to police in Uganda and it is important to note very much milder in context to that expressed by him in the various newspapers and publications to whom he has given interviews. On this point, Gombya admits that some of the opinions expressed by him in newspapers etc., were based on hearsay.</div>
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<br /></div>
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98. Gombya confirms that he in fact took the photograph of the body of Kayiira that has appeared in the various press publications, including The Standard of Nairobi. He has informed me that he will supply the photographs to me in order that they can be forwarded to the Uganda Police. He will not release the negatives.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
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99. Mr and Ms Gombya both state that they would like to return to Uganda but both feel that it is not politically safe for them to do so. Both have, they say, applied to the UK authorities to remain in the UK for the time being.</div>
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<br /></div>
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100. Conclusions. Without doubt, Gombya appears to be getting himself politically involved if the general background of the people and circumstances of this tragic incident are examined, including his reported remarks to the newspapers. As a BBC stringer/journalist, his choice of actions give rise to suspicion that his position as an ‘impartial’ witness is being impaired by the original rumour that NRA soldiers were involved in the murder of his close friend Kayiira. He agreed that he has no real evidence of this for although some of the attackers were wearing combat type clothing, this is the general dress of a large number of persons in Kampala and its importance is not so clear-cut as it might first appear.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
101 Gombya is clearly not anxious to give the real reason for his possession of the large sum of money (see paragraph 90), which supports the original theory of black-market money dealing or trying to recoup money belonging to Kayiira, which he may have had and misappropriated. This last suggestion he denies. He does not admit the first suggestion but neither does he deny it.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
102 It is the reporting officers’ opinion that although Mr and Ms Gombya are basically telling the truth in respect of the events leading to the murder of Kayiira, Gombya, certainly either for ‘political’ reasons or otherwise is not being fully forthcoming with all he knows about the circumstances surrounding the murder on 6th March, 1987.</div>
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<br /></div>
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103 It is, however, still the reporting officers’ opinion that on the evidence available, there is no evidence to implicate the President or his army and that the incident is as previously stated at paragraph 74 in previous report, a robbery that went wrong, for many people must surely have known about the large sums of money in his possession.</div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>What stakeholders say</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Israel Mayengo. Shortly after Kayiira’s arrest, more people were arrested on the same charges. Among those is Israel Mayengo who was also released on the same day with Kayiira. He insists as long as the Scotland Yard report does not point to the exact person or agency responsible for Kayiira’s death. With the report exonerating government from the murder, he wonders why on the same night he was being hunted by armed men. </div>
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<br /></div>
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“On the very night that Kayiira was killed, four armed men came to where I was staying, looking for me at 3am. Fortunately that night I had not slept there. We had been released from prison together on the same charge.”</div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Gerald Seranda, DP Secretary General believes despite the delayed release of the report as a party and the family of the late Kayiira can make use of it. “What we can do with that report now is just for postmortem to know the reality what happened. And also find out if we can continue living with the people who might have played a role in the murder.”</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>Source: Daily Monitor (26/11/2018)</b></div>
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<br /></div>
</div>
jabahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02886069170766354845noreply@blogger.com0Kampala, Uganda0.3475964 32.5825197000000340.093542400000000026 32.259796200000032 0.6016504 32.905243200000037tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-13519298994348805.post-80692570602652412382018-11-26T15:27:00.004+03:002018-11-26T15:28:47.118+03:00ICC: Fatou Bensouda hunts for 3 Kenyans in PEV cases<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<b>Nairobi.</b><br />
<i><br /></i>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<i>Ghosts of the 2007/08 post-election violence have returned to haunt suspects, with the International Criminal Court (ICC) calling for the arrest of three Kenyans suspected of witness interference.</i></div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
Prosecutor Fatou Bensouda has said that lawyers Paul Gicheru and Phillip Kipkoech Bett (alias Kipseng'erya) and journalist Walter Osapiri Barasa, who remain at large, are wanted by her office for trial.</div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>EXTRADITION</b></div>
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Last year in November, the High Court in Kenya stopped their extradition to the ICC but Ms Bensouda is adamant that they ought to be extradited.</div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
“ICC relies on State cooperation worldwide to arrest and transfer (suspects) to the Court,” the court posted on its Twitter handle, in regard to each of the three suspects.</div>
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The three are among 15 other suspects from various countries wanted by the The Hague-based court for criminal trial.</div>
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The two lawyers are wanted by the Office of The Prosecutor (OTP) for allegedly corruptly influencing a total of six prosecution witnesses.</div>
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Mr Barasa is also accused of trying to bribe someone he thought was a prosecution witness in the case against Deputy President William Ruto.</div>
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<b><br /></b></div>
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<b>WARRANT</b></div>
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“The arrest warrant was issued under seal against Mr Barasa on August 2, 2013 and unsealed on October 2, 2013," the statement says.</div>
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"The case remains at the pre-trial stage, pending the suspect’s arrest or voluntary appearance before the court. The ICC does not try individuals in their absence."</div>
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The court’s position is the same on the cases against Mr Gicheru and Mr Bett.</div>
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The warrant of arrest was issued under seal against the two on March 10, 2015 and unsealed on September 10, 2015.</div>
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In its decision, the court found that the evidence submitted by the prosecution demonstrated that “they were involved in an organised and systematic criminal scheme, aimed at approaching and corrupting prosecution witnesses through bribes and other inducements, in exchange for their withdrawal as witnesses and/or recantation of their prior statements to the prosecution.”</div>
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On November 7, during a seminar on arrests at ICC headquarters, Ms Bensouda said the court’s judicial machinery is likely to be frustrated and held in abeyance unless persons sought by the ICC are arrested and made to appear before the court.</div>
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“High-level political commitment and consistent diplomatic coordination between states and other actors is needed to address the arrest challenge," she said.</div>
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"If left unaddressed, it will have negligible impact on specific or general deterrence and prevention of the world’s gravest crimes."</div>
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<b>EXPEDIENCY</b></div>
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She added that ICC arrest warrants must not be cast aside as mere inconveniences in inter and intra-state politics, or traded away in the service of political expediency.</div>
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"From the moment the court’s judges issue an arrest warrant, responsibility for its execution falls on States Parties, as the Court's executive arm, alongside any other States that may be under an obligation to cooperate,” sated Ms Bensouda.</div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
"Impunity and instability are closely interrelated. When an alleged perpetrator of Rome Statute crimes remains at large, he or she may continue to commit crimes."</div>
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She called for action, not only through vocal support and public statements but also at the operational level.</div>
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“State Parties and Assembly of State Parties must take appropriate action in response to the court’s findings of non-compliance on failure to arrest and surrender ICC suspects,” she added.</div>
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"My Office will continue to pursue non-compliance findings under Article 87 (7) of Rome Statute."</div>
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Cases against three Kenyans, President Uhuru Kenyatta, Mr Ruto and broadcaster Joshua Sang were withdrawn due to insufficient evidence.</div>
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<b>WITHDRAWN</b></div>
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The case against President Kenyatta was withdrawn on December 5, 2014 while that against his deputy and Mr Sang was withdrawn on April 5, 2016.</div>
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They had been indicted by the court for the crimes committed during the post-election violence that claimed 1,133 lives and displaced over 650,000 people.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>Source: Daily Nation (26/11/2018)</b></div>
</div>
jabahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02886069170766354845noreply@blogger.com0Nairobi, Kenya-1.2920659 36.821946199999957-1.5460584000000002 36.499222699999955 -1.0380734 37.144669699999959tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-13519298994348805.post-57329637165483952862018-11-16T01:29:00.001+03:002018-11-16T01:29:34.980+03:00Ethiopia arrests 63 suspected of rights abuses, corruption<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b>Addis Ababa.</b></div>
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<i><br /></i></div>
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<i>Ethiopia has arrested 63 intelligence officials, military personnel and businesspeople on allegations of rights violations and corruption, the country's attorney general announced on Monday.</i></div>
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The sweeping high-profile arrests carried out in recent days are a result of Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed's order for a months-long investigation into misdoings under the previous government.</div>
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Attorney General Berhanu Tsegaye told the media that some of those arrested are suspected of abuses of prisoners including "beatings, forced confessions, rape, electrocution and even killings".</div>
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Some of those arrested are accused of mismanaging a state-owned military corporation, the Metal and Engineering Corporation, that was looted in a multi-billion dollar corruption scheme, he said.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Berhanu also said that Ethiopia's former spy chief is suspected of involvement in an attempt to assassinate the new prime minster at a rally on June 23. While other officials implicated in the plot have fled the country, the former intelligence chief is now residing in northern Ethiopia and should turn himself in to authorities, he said.</div>
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Yilikal Getnet, an opposition figure, told The Associated Press the public had demanded the arrests of the former officials.</div>
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"These have been issues that we in the opposition have long been calling for, too," he said, adding that Ethiopia needs a truth and reconciliation process to investigate past misdoings. "The ruling party alone can't bring justice for all these atrocities committed in the past."</div>
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Since Abiy, 42, came to power in April his new government has released several thousand political prisoners, permitted exiled opposition groups to return home, dropped terror charges against prominent opposition politicians and permitted the media to operate more freely.</div>
<br />
<b>Source: Agencies (13/11/2018).</b><br />
<br /></div>
jabahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02886069170766354845noreply@blogger.com0Addis Ababa, Ethiopia8.9806034 38.7577605000000188.7296479 38.435037000000015 9.2315589 39.08048400000002tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-13519298994348805.post-39726646253057486532018-11-16T01:19:00.005+03:002018-11-16T01:19:56.986+03:00Kenya: CJ Maraga calls for laws on medical technology<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>Nairobi.</b></div>
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<i><br /></i></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<i>Chief Justice David Maraga has asked MPs to formulate laws that address ethical issues in advancement of medical technologies that include genetic manipulation.</i></div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
Speaking during the launch of a book authored by Supreme Court judge Isaac Lenaola and Kabianga University’s deputy vice-chancellor, Prof Marion Mutugi, Justice Maraga said advanced technology has resulted in grey areas on what is ethically right or wrong as well as legal.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
“I wish to challenge the legislators to come up with appropriate legislation to bridge this gap because medical technology is advancing faster,” said Mr Maraga. The book authored by Prof Mutugi, who is a biomedical researcher, and Justice Lenaola, is titled Bioethics of medical advances and genetic manipulation.</div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
It focuses on legal and ethical issues raised by scientific advances as well as emerging procedures in the medical field. It also raises questions on the issue of technology used in solving problems of human reproduction and fertility, therapeutic genetic engineering and the production of genetically modified organisms (GMOs).</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The question of sex orientation, transsexuals, transgender and individual human rights has also been discussed in the book while being related to legal, philosophical and moral aspects of the country as well as the rest of the world.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The Chief Justice said the duo had made a gallant contribution in writing the multidisciplinary book, which took seven years to be completed and published.</div>
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<br /></div>
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He also pointed out that bioethics should be considered as a learning topic in institutions of higher learning.</div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
Justice Lenaola said that judges always face difficulties in handling cases that involve issues like surrogacy, homosexuality, transgender, assisted fertility and lesbianism since there are no laws in the country about them.</div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
However, he pointed out that the issues raise ethical questions and the right to information yet some of them are supported by the advancement in technology.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
All Supreme Court judges and a majority of lawyers as well as family of the two authors were present during the book launch in Nairobi.</div>
<br />
<b>Source: Daily Nation (15/11/2018).</b></div>
jabahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02886069170766354845noreply@blogger.com0Nairobi, Kenya-1.2920659 36.821946199999957-1.5460584000000002 36.499222699999955 -1.0380734 37.144669699999959tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-13519298994348805.post-50264975585011491572018-11-16T01:17:00.000+03:002018-11-16T01:17:06.506+03:00Uganda: Two suspects arrested over attacks on Chinese investors<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b>Kampala. </b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<i>Police have arrested two suspects in the raid on a Chinese company last month after reviewing evidence captured on the factory’s CCTV footage.</i></div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Mr Emilian Kayima, the Police Spokesperson, told Daily Monitor yesterday that the suspects were sufficiently identified from evidence of the CCTV footage provided by the company. He said the suspects are detained at Mukono Police Station. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
“We used our intelligence from the community and the neighbours. We identified and arrested some of the suspects who are already pinned by the video footages,” Mr Kayima said.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Mr Chen Fan, the director of CCLE Rubber Company, which was attacked on October 23, was called to the police station to identify the suspects. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
“We have seen the same faces on the CCTV camera and I hope they can be dealt with so that the problem stops,” Mr Fan said.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>Weighing options</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Following the growing spate of armed attacks and robberies on their members and factories, which involved loss of life and property, Chinese investors said they were weighing the option of leaving Uganda to invest elsewhere. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
On Wednesday last week, the investors met Minister of Internal Affairs Jeje Odongo, Security Minister Elly Tumwine, the Inspector General of Police, Martins Okoth Ochola, Director General of Internal Security Organisation Kaka Bagyenda, Mr Ronald Kibuule (Mukono North MP) to seek a solution.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
In response to the Chinese cry, government promised to provide security guards to ensure safety of the investors and their investments. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
During a meeting with President Museveni at State House Entebbe on Tuesday, Chinese Ambassador Zheng Zhu Qiang expressed dissatisfaction in the security system for failing to provide a safe atmosphere for the Chinese investors. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
President Museveni reassured him that there would be permanent security on Industrial Park areas and factories.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
“Some thugs have been attacking Chinese investors but we shall defeat them.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
This is temporary, shallow and shall be defeated. There were attacks in Mukono and Mityana; one experienced by the Gayaza Road construction company and the recent one in Zirobwe. The security of Uganda is very good but urban insurgency was not paid attention to. Tell the Government of China that I am personally handling this issue,” President Museveni told Mr Zheng.</div>
<br />
<b>Source: Daily Monitor (15/11/2018)</b></div>
jabahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02886069170766354845noreply@blogger.com0Kampala, Uganda0.3475964 32.5825197000000340.093542400000000026 32.259796200000032 0.6016504 32.905243200000037tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-13519298994348805.post-80361859792163385052018-11-13T23:12:00.000+03:002018-11-13T23:12:20.054+03:00CNN sues Trump administration over ban of journalist Jim Acosta<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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CNN filed a lawsuit Tuesday against US President Donald Trump and others in his administration, requesting that chief White House correspondent Jim Acosta’s access be restored.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The lawsuit makes claims under the First and Fifth Amendments along with the Administrative Procedure Act (APA).</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
In the First Amendment claim, CNN points out that the president’s dislike for Acosta is not sufficient to restrict his First Amendment rights to question the president at press events. “The sole justification for Defendants’ conduct is their dislike for Plaintiffs’ coverage of the administration and critique of the President. But that is insufficient to justify such a substantial restriction on Plaintiffs’ First Amendment rights.”</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
CNN also claims the Trump administration revoked Acosta’s credentials without the due process guaranteed under the Fifth Amendment.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Under the APA, CNN alleges that the Trump administration’s revocation of Acosta’s credentials was “arbitrary and capricious.”</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>Source:</b> <a href="http://jurist.org/">jurist.org</a> (13/11/2018).</div>
</div>
jabahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02886069170766354845noreply@blogger.com0Washington, USA47.7510741 -120.740138542.2334901 -131.067287 53.268658099999996 -110.41299000000001tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-13519298994348805.post-86086234857822695212018-11-09T21:39:00.000+03:002018-11-09T21:39:37.230+03:00How to answer the most common interview questions<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: #262626; font-family: "Gill Sans MT",sans-serif;">Though you can never predict exactly how an interview will go,
there are certain common interview questions that come up time and time again.
By preparing and practicing your answers to these questions, you’ll feel more
in control and confident throughout your interview. <span id="more-13965" style="font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; outline: 0px;"></span>This
article gives you a perspective on how to effectively answer the most common
interview questions used by recruiters.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<br /></div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background: white; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; orphans: 2; outline: 0px; text-align: justify; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-indent: -18.0pt; vertical-align: baseline; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: red; font-family: "Gill Sans MT",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: "Gill Sans MT"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Gill Sans MT";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></i></b><!--[endif]--><strong style="font-style: inherit; outline: 0px;"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: red; font-family: "Gill Sans MT",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; padding: 0cm;">Tell me/us about yourself</span></strong><span style="color: red; font-family: "Gill Sans MT",sans-serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; orphans: 2; outline: 0px; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; vertical-align: baseline; widows: 2;">
<span style="color: #262626; font-family: Gill Sans MT, sans-serif;">Though
this seems like a very simple question, don’t be deceived – in a high-pressure
interview situation it can be difficult to find the balance between saying the
right things, oversharing, and not sharing enough. Employers ask this
question to get you talking, to get a feel of your personality and people
skills, and to use as a springboard for further questions – so mention the
points you want to discuss (such as your university experience, your
involvement in clubs or societies, or your passion for this industry). Avoid!
Being too personal, being too vague (make yourself a memorable candidate!), or
speaking for too long (keep it short, sweet, and to the point).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: red; font-family: "Gill Sans MT",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: "Gill Sans MT"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Gill Sans MT";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></i></b><!--[endif]--><strong><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: red; font-family: "Gill Sans MT",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; padding: 0cm;">Why
do you want to work for me/us?</span></strong><span style="color: red; font-family: "Gill Sans MT",sans-serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: #262626; font-family: "Gill Sans MT",sans-serif;">Employers ask this question to find out how much you know about
the company, gauge how eager you are to work for them, and to assess whether
your goals match their objectives. It’s the perfect time to highlight the
reasons why you’re a great fit for their company, and to show them how much you
want to work for them. Avoid! Giving an uninformed answer which shows you
haven’t done your research, giving the impression that you don’t care about
getting the job, or focusing on finding ‘any’ graduate job.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: red; font-family: "Gill Sans MT",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: "Gill Sans MT"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Gill Sans MT";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></i></b><!--[endif]--><strong><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: red; font-family: "Gill Sans MT",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; padding: 0cm;">Why
should I/we hire you?</span></strong><span style="color: red; font-family: "Gill Sans MT",sans-serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: #262626; font-family: "Gill Sans MT",sans-serif;">This tricky-to-answer question requires you to sell yourself
without sounding arrogant. Essentially, it’s your chance to highlight what
makes you unique, and show the employer why they should choose you over the
next person. Employers want to see that you are confident in your skills –
so support all your statements with solid evidence. Avoid! Being too
modest, discussing skills that aren’t relevant to the role, or reeling off a
list of skills without backing them up with evidence.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: red; font-family: "Gill Sans MT",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: "Gill Sans MT"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Gill Sans MT";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></i></b><!--[endif]--><strong><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: red; font-family: "Gill Sans MT",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; padding: 0cm;">What
are your strengths and weaknesses?</span></strong><span style="color: red; font-family: "Gill Sans MT",sans-serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: #262626; font-family: "Gill Sans MT",sans-serif;">Employers ask this question to gauge how self-aware you are.
There’s no harm in admitting a weakness, and by showing the employer that you
are conscious of it you’re also indicating that you can take steps to turn it
into a strength. Likewise, stating a strength implies that you are confident in
your abilities and can offer great benefits to their company. Avoid!
Trying to spin a strength as a weakness, claiming that you don’t have any
weaknesses at all, or giving irrelevant answers.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background: white; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; orphans: 2; outline: 0px; text-align: justify; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-indent: -18.0pt; vertical-align: baseline; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: red; font-family: "Gill Sans MT",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: "Gill Sans MT"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Gill Sans MT";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></i></b><!--[endif]--><strong style="font-style: inherit; outline: 0px;"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: red; font-family: "Gill Sans MT",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; padding: 0cm;">What has been your biggest achievement?</span></strong><span style="color: red; font-family: "Gill Sans MT",sans-serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background: white; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; margin-bottom: 21.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; orphans: 2; outline: 0px; text-align: justify; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; vertical-align: baseline; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span style="color: #262626; font-family: "Gill Sans MT",sans-serif;">This question can be particularly tricky, as it requires you to
pick just one achievement that is relevant to this employer and their company –
exactly why it’s so important to prepare your answer beforehand. The
employer wants to know that you are a high achiever – so the best approach is
to choose an achievement that is recent and unique. You’ll need to discuss how
you went about accomplishing it, and the outcome or consequences of the
achievement. Avoid! Choosing your degree as your greatest achievement,
lying, or giving an unprofessional example.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: red; font-family: "Gill Sans MT",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: "Gill Sans MT"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Gill Sans MT";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></i></b><!--[endif]--><strong><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: red; font-family: "Gill Sans MT",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; padding: 0cm;">What
are your hobbies and interests?</span></strong><span style="color: red; font-family: "Gill Sans MT",sans-serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: #262626; font-family: "Gill Sans MT",sans-serif;">This question is a chance for you to show the employer who you
are outside of the workplace – as well as demonstrate your transferable
skills. The best approach is to discuss genuine hobbies and the skills
that they have taught you. For example, if you’ve been heavily involved in
sports throughout university, discuss how you’ve worked well as part of a team,
been involved in organising events, or have been resilient when things didn’t
go your way. Avoid! Lying, mentioning hobbies or interests that are
unprofessional, or being too generic about your interests (remember, a lot of
people enjoy watching TV!)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<br /></div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background: white; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; orphans: 2; outline: 0px; text-align: justify; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-indent: -18.0pt; vertical-align: baseline; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: red; font-family: "Gill Sans MT",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: "Gill Sans MT"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Gill Sans MT";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">7.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></i></b><!--[endif]--><strong style="font-style: inherit; outline: 0px;"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: red; font-family: "Gill Sans MT",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; padding: 0cm;">Where do you see yourself in 5 years?</span></strong><span style="color: red; font-family: "Gill Sans MT",sans-serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background: white; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; margin-bottom: 21.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; orphans: 2; outline: 0px; text-align: justify; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; vertical-align: baseline; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span style="color: #262626; font-family: "Gill Sans MT",sans-serif;">With this question, the employer is trying to ascertain whether
your goals align with theirs and ensure that this role fits into your long-term
plan. The best approach is to show that you are ambitious (show how you’ll
want to progress within 5 years) but also that you see yourself in this line of
work. Avoid! Being unrealistic, under-selling yourself, or saying that you
don’t know.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background: white; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; orphans: 2; outline: 0px; text-align: justify; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-indent: -18.0pt; vertical-align: baseline; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: red; font-family: "Gill Sans MT",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-family: "Gill Sans MT"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Gill Sans MT";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">8.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></i></b><!--[endif]--><strong style="font-style: inherit; outline: 0px;"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: red; font-family: "Gill Sans MT",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; padding: 0cm;">Do you have any questions for me/us?</span></strong><span style="color: red; font-family: "Gill Sans MT",sans-serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background: white; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; margin-bottom: 21.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; orphans: 2; outline: 0px; text-align: justify; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; vertical-align: baseline; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span style="color: #262626; font-family: "Gill Sans MT",sans-serif;">Often asked at the end of a job interview, the questions you
choose to ask (which should always be determined before!) the employer will be
able to judge whether you’re a good fit for the role and see if you have
researched the company. It’s the perfect opportunity for you to find out key
details about the role or the company you are applying to. Avoid! Not
having any questions prepared, asking generic or vague questions, and not
listening to their answers!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Gill Sans MT",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Credit</span></b><span style="font-family: "Gill Sans MT",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Jessica
Ching </i>(06/11/2018)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Gill Sans MT",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Link</span></b><span style="font-family: "Gill Sans MT",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><a href="https://careersblog.warwick.ac.uk/">https://careersblog.warwick.ac.uk</a> </i><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br /></div>
jabahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02886069170766354845noreply@blogger.com0United Kingdom55.378051 -3.4359729999999912.203021 -86.05316049999999 90 79.18121450000001tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-13519298994348805.post-90589372551868628862018-10-14T23:03:00.000+03:002018-10-14T23:03:23.154+03:00ROBERT GREENE - THE 48 LAWS OF POWER (BOOK SUMMARY)<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 15.0pt; mso-outline-level: 3; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ROBERT GREENE - THE 48 LAWS OF POWER
(BOOK SUMMARY)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 15.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-outline-level: 3; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #203864; font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="color: #203864; font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">See: Niccolò Machiavelli (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Prince</i>)
& Sun Tzu (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Art of War</i>)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>Law 1: Never outshine the
master</b></span><span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Always make those above you feel comfortably
superior. In your desire to please or impress them, do not go too
far in displaying your talents or you might accomplish the opposite – inspire
fear and insecurity. Make your masters appear more brilliant than
they are, and you will attain the heights of power.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b><span style="color: #c00000;">Law 2: Never
put too much trust in friends; learn how to use enemies</span></b><span style="color: #c00000;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Be wary of friends – they will betray you more
quickly, for they are easily aroused to envy. They also become
spoiled and tyrannical. But hire a former enemy and he will be more loyal than
a friend, because he has more to prove. In fact, you have more to
fear from friends than from enemies. If you have no enemies, find a
way to make them.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>Law 3: Conceal your
intentions</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Keep people off-balance and in the dark by never
revealing the purpose behind your actions. If they have no clue what
you are up to, they cannot prepare a defence. Guide them far enough
down the wrong path, envelope them in enough smoke, and by the time they
realize your intentions, it will be too late.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>Law 4: Always say less than
necessary<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">When you are trying to impress people with words,
the more you say, the more common you appear, and the less in
control. Even if you are saying something banal, it will seem
original if you make it vague, open-ended, and sphinx-like. Powerful
people impress and intimidate by saying less. The more you say, the
more likely you are to say something foolish.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b><span style="color: #c00000;">Law 5: So much
depends on reputation – guard it with your life<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Reputation is the cornerstone of
power. Through reputation alone you can intimidate and win; once you
slip, however, you are vulnerable, and will be attacked on all
sides. Make your reputation unassailable. Always be alert
to potential attacks and thwart them before they happen. Meanwhile,
learn to destroy your enemies by opening holes in their own
reputations. Then stand aside and let public opinion hang them.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b><span style="color: #c00000;">Law 6: Court
attention at all cost<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Everything is judged by its appearance; what
is unseen counts for nothing. Never let yourself get lost in the
crowd, then, or buried in oblivion. Stand out. Be
conspicuous, at all cost. Make yourself a magnet of attention by
appearing larger, more colourful, more mysterious, than the bland and timid
masses.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>Law 7: Get others to do the
work for you, but always take the credit<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Use the wisdom, knowledge, and legwork of other
people to further your own cause. Not only will such assistance save
you valuable time and energy, it will give you a godlike aura of efficiency and
speed. In the end your helpers will be forgotten, and you will be
remembered. Never do yourself what others can do for you.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>Law 8: Make other people
come to you – use bait if necessary<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> When you force the other person to act, you
are the one in control. It is always better to make your opponent
come to you, abandoning his own plans in the process. Lure him with
fabulous gains – then attack. You hold the cards.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>Law 9: Win through your
actions, never through argument<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Any momentary triumph you think gained
through argument is really a Pyrrhic victory: The resentment and ill
will you stir up is stronger and lasts longer than any momentary change of
opinion. It is much more powerful to get others to agree with you
through your actions, without saying a word. Demonstrate, do not
explicate.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>Law 10: Infection: avoid the
unhappy and unlucky<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> You can die from someone else’s misery –
emotional states are as infectious as disease. You may feel you are
helping the drowning man, but you are only precipitating your own
disaster. The unfortunate sometimes draw misfortune on themselves;
they will also draw it on you. Associate with the happy and
fortunate instead.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>Law 11: Learn to keep people
dependent on you<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> To maintain your independence, you must
always be needed and wanted. The more you are relied on, the more
freedom you have. Make people depend on you for their happiness and
prosperity and you have nothing to fear. Never teach them enough so
that they can do without you.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>Law 12: Use selective
honesty and generosity to disarm your victim<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> One sincere and honest move will cover over
dozens of dishonest ones. Open-hearted gestures of honesty and
generosity bring down the guard of even the most suspicious
people. Once your selective honesty opens a hole in their armor, you
can deceive and manipulate them at will. A timely gift – a Trojan
horse – will serve the same purpose.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>Law 13: When asking for
help, appeal to people’s self-interest, never to their mercy or gratitude<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> If you need to turn to an ally for help, do
not bother to remind him of your past assistance and good deeds. He
will find a way to ignore you. Instead, uncover something in your
request, or in your alliance with him, that will benefit him, and emphasize it
out of all proportion. He will respond enthusiastically when he sees
something to be gained for himself.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b><span style="color: #c00000;">Law 14: Pose
as a friend, work as a spy<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Knowing about your rival is
critical. Use spies to gather valuable information that will keep
you a step ahead. Better still: Play the spy yourself. In
polite social encounters, learn to probe. Ask indirect questions to
get people to reveal their weaknesses and intentions. There is no
occasion that is not an opportunity for artful spying.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>Law 15: Crush your enemy
totally<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> All great leaders since Moses have known that
a feared enemy must be crushed completely. (Sometimes they have
learned this the hard way.) If one ember is left alight, no matter
how dimly it smolders, a fire will eventually break out. More is
lost through stopping halfway than through total annihilation: The
enemy will recover and will seek revenge. Crush him, not only in
body but in spirit.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b><span style="color: #c00000;">Law 16: Use
absence to increase respect and honor</span><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Too much circulation makes the price go
down: The more you are seen and heard from, the more common you
appear. If you are already established in a group, temporary
withdrawal from it will make you more talked about, even more
admired. You must learn when to leave. Create value
through scarcity.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>Law 17: Keep others in
suspended terror: cultivate an air of unpredictability<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></b><span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Humans
are creatures of habit with an insatiable need to see familiarity in other
people’s actions. Your predictability gives them a sense of
control. Turn the tables: Be deliberately unpredictable. Behaviour
that seems to have no consistency or purpose will keep them off-balance, and
they will wear themselves out trying to explain your moves. Taken to
an extreme, this strategy can intimidate and terrorize.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b><span style="color: #c00000;">Law 18: Do not
build fortresses to protect yourself – isolation is dangerous<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The world is dangerous, and enemies are
everywhere – everyone has to protect themselves. A fortress seems
the safest. But isolation exposes you to more dangers than it protects you from
– it cuts you off from valuable information, it makes you conspicuous and an
easy target. Better to circulate among people, find allies,
mingle. You are shielded from your enemies by the crowd.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>Law 19: Know who you’re
dealing with – do not offend the wrong person<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> There are many kinds of people in the world,
and you can never assume that everyone will react to your strategies in the
same way. Deceive or outmanoeuvre some people and they will spend
the rest of their lives seeking revenge. They are wolves in lambs’
clothing. Choose your victims and opponents carefully, then – never
offend or deceive the wrong person.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>Law 20: Do not commit to
anyone<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> It is the fool who always rushes to take
sides. Do not commit to any side or cause but
yourself. By maintaining your independence, you become the master of
others – playing people against one another, making them pursue you.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>Law 21: Play a sucker to
catch a sucker – seem dumber than your mark<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> No one likes feeling stupider than the next
person. The trick, then, is to make your victims feel smart – and
not just smart, but smarter than you are. Once convinced of this,
they will never suspect that you may have ulterior motives.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>Law 22: Use the surrender
tactic: transform weakness into power<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> When you are weaker, never fight for honour’s
sake; choose to surrender instead. Surrender gives you time to
recover, time to torment and irritate your conqueror, time to wait for his
power to wane. Do not give him the satisfaction of fighting and
defeating you – surrender first. By turning the other cheek, you
infuriate and unsettle him. Make surrender a tool of power.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>Law 23: Concentrate your
forces<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Conserve your forces and energies by keeping
them concentrated at their strongest point. You gain more by finding
a rich mine and mining it deeper, than by flitting from one shallow mine to
another – intensity defeats extensity every time. When looking for
sources of power to elevate you, find the one key patron, the fat cow who will
give you milk for a long time to come.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>Law 24: Play the perfect
courtier<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The perfect courtier thrives in a world where
everything revolves around power and political dexterity. He has
mastered the art of indirection; he flatters, yields to superiors, and asserts
power over others in the mot oblique and graceful manner. Learn and
apply the laws of courtiership and there will be no limit to how far you can
rise in the court.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>Law 25: Re-create yourself<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Do not accept the roles that society foists
on you. Re-create yourself by forging a new identity, one that
commands attention and never bores the audience. Be the master of
your own image rather than letting others define it for
you. Incorporate dramatic devices into your public gestures and
actions – your power will be enhanced, and your character will seem larger than
life.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>Law 26: Keep your hands
clean<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">You must seem a paragon of civility and efficiency:
Your hands are never soiled by mistakes and nasty deeds. Maintain
such a spotless appearance by using others as scapegoats and cat’s-paws to
disguise your involvement.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b><span style="color: #c00000;">Law 27: Play
on people’s need to create a cultlike following</span><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">People have an overwhelming desire to believe in
something. Become the focal point of such desire by offering them a
cause, a new faith to follow. Keep your words vague but full of
promise; emphasize enthusiasm over rationality and clear thinking. Give
your new disciples rituals to perform, ask them to make sacrifices on your
behalf. In the absence of organized religion and grand causes, your
new belief system will bring you untold power.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b><span style="color: #c00000;">Law 28: Enter
action with boldness</span><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> If you are unsure of a course of action, do
not attempt it. Your doubts and hesitations will infect your
execution. Timidity is dangerous: Better to enter with
boldness. Any mistakes you commit through audacity are easily
corrected with more audacity. Everyone admires the bold; no one honours
the timid.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>Law 29: Plan all the way to
the end<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The ending is everything. Plan all
the way to it, considering all the possible consequences, obstacles, and twists
of fortune that might reverse your hard work and give the glory to
others. By planning to the end, you will not be overwhelmed by
circumstances and you will know when to stop. Gently guide fortune
and help determine the future by thinking far ahead.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b><span style="color: #c00000;">Law 30: Make
your accomplishments seem effortless</span><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Your actions must seem natural and executed
with ease. All the toil and practice that go into them, and all the
clever tricks, must be concealed. When you act, act effortlessly, as
if you could do much more. Avoid the temptation of revealing how
hard you work – it only raises questions. Teach no one your tricks
or they will be used against you.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>Law 31: Control the options:
get others to play with the cards you deal<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The best deceptions are the ones that seem to give
the other person a choice: Your victims feel they are in control but
are your puppets. Give people options that come out in your favour
whichever one they choose. Force them to make choices between the
lesser of two evils, both of which serve your purpose. Put them on
the horns of a dilemma: They are gored wherever they turn.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>Law 32: Play to people’s
fantasies<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The truth is often avoided because it is ugly
and unpleasant. Never appeal to truth and reality unless you are
prepared for the anger that comes for disenchantment. Life is so
harsh and distressing that people who can manufacture romance or conjure up
fantasy are like oases in the desert: Everyone flocks to them. There
is great power in tapping into the fantasies of the masses.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>Law 33: Discover each man’s
thumbscrew</b></span><b><span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Everyone has a weakness, a gap in the castle
wall. That weakness is usually an insecurity, an uncontrollable
emotion or need; it can also be a small secret pleasure. Either way,
once found, it is a thumbscrew you can turn to your advantage.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>Law 34: Be royal in your own
fashion: act like a king to be treated like one</b></span><b><span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The way you carry yourself will often
determine how you are treated; In the long run, appearing vulgar or common will
make people disrespect you. For a king respects himself and inspires
the same sentiment in others. By acting regally and confident of
your powers, you make yourself seem destined to wear a crown.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>Law 35: Master the art of
timing</b></span><b><span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Never seem to be in a hurry – hurrying
betrays a lack of control over yourself, and over time. Always seem
patient, as if you know that everything will come to you
eventually. Become a detective of the right moment; sniff out the
spirit of the times, the trends that will carry you to power. Learn
to stand back when the time is not yet ripe, and to strike fiercely when it has
reached fruition.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>Law 36: Disdain things you
cannot have: ignoring them is the best revenge<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> By acknowledging a petty problem, you give it
existence and credibility. The more attention you pay an enemy, the
stronger you make him; and a small mistake is often made worse and more visible
when you try to fix it. It is sometimes best to leave things
alone. If there is something you want but cannot have, show contempt
for it. The less interest you reveal, the more superior you seem.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b><span style="color: #c00000;">Law 37: Create
compelling spectacles<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Striking imagery and grand symbolic gestures
create the aura of power – everyone responds to them. Stage
spectacles for those around you, then full of arresting visuals and radiant
symbols that heighten your presence. Dazzled by appearances, no one
will notice what you are really doing.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>Law 38: Think as you like
but behave like others<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> If you make a show of going against the
times, flaunting your unconventional ideas and unorthodox ways, people will
think that you only want attention and that you look down upon
them. They will find a way to punish you for making them feel
inferior. It is far safer to blend in and nurture the common touch. Share
your originality only with tolerant friends and those who are sure to
appreciate your uniqueness.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>Law 39: Stir up waters to
catch fish<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Anger and emotion are strategically
counterproductive. You must always stay calm and
objective. But if you can make your enemies angry while staying calm
yourself, you gain a decided advantage. Put your enemies
off-balance: Find the chink in their vanity through which you can rattle them,
and you hold the strings.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>Law 40: Despise the free
lunch<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> What is offered for free is dangerous – it
usually involves either a trick or a hidden obligation. What has
worth, is worth paying for. By paying your own way you stay clear of
gratitude, guilt, and deceit. It is also often wise to pay the full
price – there is no cutting corners with excellence. Be lavish with
your money and keep it circulating, for generosity is a sign and a magnet for
power.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>Law 41: Avoid stepping into
a great man’s shoes<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> What happens first always appears better and
more original than what comes after. If you succeed a great man or
have a famous parent, you will have to accomplish double their achievements to
outshine them. Do not get lost in their shadow or stuck in a past
not of your own making: Establish your own name and identity by
changing course. Slay the overbearing father, disparage his legacy,
and gain power by shining in your own way.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>Law 42: Strike the shepherd
and the sheep will scatter</b></span><b><span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Trouble can often be traced to a single strong
individual – the stirrer, the arrogant underling, the poisoned of
goodwill. If you allow such people room to operate, others will
succumb to their influence. Do not wait for the troubles they cause
to multiply, do not try to negotiate with them – they are
irredeemable. Neutralize their influence by isolating or banishing
them. Strike at the source of the trouble and the sheep will
scatter.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>Law 43: Work on the hearts
and minds of others<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Coercion creates a reaction that will eventually
work against you. You must seduce others into wanting to move in
your direction. A person you have seduced becomes your loyal pawn. And
the way to seduce others is to operate on their individual psychologies and
weaknesses. Soften up the resistant by working on their emotions,
playing on what they hold dear and what they fear. Ignore the hearts
and minds of others and they will grow to hate you.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>Law 44: Disarm and infuriate
with the mirror effect<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The mirror reflects reality, but it is also the
perfect tool for deception: When you mirror your enemies, doing exactly as they
do, they cannot figure out your strategy. The Mirror Effect mocks
and humiliates them, making them overreact. By holding up a mirror
to their psyches, you seduce them with the illusion that you share their
values; by holding up a mirror to their actions, you teach them a
lesson. Few can resist the power of the Mirror Effect.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>Law 45: Preach the need for
change, but never reform too much at once</b></span><b><span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Everyone understands the need for change in
the abstract, but on the day-to-day level people are creatures of
habit. Too much innovation is traumatic and will lead to
revolt. If you are new to a position of power, or an outsider trying
to build a power base, make a show of respecting the old way of doing
things. If change is necessary, make it feel like a gentle
improvement on the past.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>Law 46: Never appear too
perfect<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></b><span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Appearing better than others is always dangerous,
but most dangerous of all is to appear to have no faults or
weaknesses. Envy creates silent enemies. It is smart to
occasionally display defects, and admit to harmless vices, to deflect envy and
appear more human and approachable. Only gods and the dead can seem
perfect with impunity.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>Law 47: Do not go past the
mark you aimed for; in victory, learn when to stop<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The moment of victory is often the moment of
greatest peril. In the heat of victory, arrogance and overconfidence
can push you past the goal you had aimed for, and by going too far, you make
more enemies than you defeat. Do not allow success to go to your
head. There is no substitute for strategy and careful
planning. Set a goal, and when you reach it, stop.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>Law 48: Assume formlessness<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> By taking a shape, by having a visible plan,
you open yourself to attack. Instead of taking a form for your enemy to
grasp, keep yourself adaptable and on the move. Accept the fact that
nothing is certain, and no law is fixed. The best way to protect
yourself is to be as fluid and formless as water; never bet on stability or
lasting order. Everything changes.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; text-align: right;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Credit: </span></b><span style="font-family: "tahoma" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://www.deconstructingexcellence.com/">http://www.deconstructingexcellence.com</a>
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br /></div>
jabahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02886069170766354845noreply@blogger.com0United Kingdom55.378051 -3.4359729999999912.203021 -86.05316049999999 90 79.18121450000001tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-13519298994348805.post-29331844581665757102017-11-20T16:44:00.000+03:002017-11-20T16:44:23.715+03:00Kenya Supreme Court upholds Uhuru Kenyatta poll win<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<i><b>Kenya's Supreme Court has upheld President Uhuru Kenyatta's victory in last month's election re-run, which was boycotted by the main opposition.</b></i></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Judges dismissed two petitions challenging the poll, opening the way for Mr Kenyatta to be inaugurated for a second term next week.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The opposition said the ruling had been given under "duress", and it would not recognise the new government.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Mr Kenyatta won with 98% of the vote with turnout at 39%.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The poll was held after the Supreme Court annulled elections held in August, saying the poll was marred by "irregularities and illegalities".</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Civil society groups wanted the new poll to be annulled as well, arguing that the electoral commission had violated the law by failing to call for fresh nominations.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Handing down the verdict on behalf of six judges, Chief Justice David Maraga said: "The court has unanimously determined that the petitions are not merited"</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The aftermath of the poll has been fraught with tension.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Last week, five people were killed as police tried to break up a convoy of the opposition National Super Alliance (Nasa) in the capital, Nairobi.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Nasa candidate Raila Odinga refused to take part in the re-run, saying the electoral commission had failed to take steps to ensure that mistakes of the August election would not be repeated.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
"We in Nasa had repeatedly declared before this Supreme Court ruling today that we consider this government to be illegitimate and do not recognise it. This position has not been changed by the court ruling," Mr Odinga's adviser, Salim Lone, said in a statement.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>MEANWHILE:</b> the Supreme Court ruling has sent supporters from across the political divide to the streets in different parts of Kenya, albeit for contrasting reasons.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
In ruling party strongholds, there've been celebrations, while followers of the main opposition alliance have been demonstrating.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The decision to dismiss these cases paves the way for Uhuru Kenyatta's swearing in for another five-year term.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
But this is by no means the end of the controversy.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Mr Kenyatta will face an uphill task of uniting a fractured nation.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>Source: BBC News (20/11/2017)</b></div>
</div>
jabahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02886069170766354845noreply@blogger.com0Nairobi, Kenya-1.2920659 36.821946199999957-1.5460584000000002 36.499222699999955 -1.0380734 37.144669699999959tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-13519298994348805.post-84473287464250439182017-09-01T16:19:00.001+03:002017-09-01T16:19:23.396+03:00Kenyan Presidential Election 2017: Supreme Court quashes Uhuru Kenyatta's re-election<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>Supreme Court - Nairobi, Kenya.</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>Summary:</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<i>Kenya's Supreme Court on Friday declared the results of last month's presidential poll "invalid, null and void" and ordered the election be re-run within 60 days.</i></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<u>Supreme Court majority decision:</u></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<i>1. IEBC failed to conduct the election in compliance with constitutional provisions.</i></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<i><br /></i></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<i>2. IEBC committed irregularities and illegalities.</i></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<i><br /></i></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<i>3. The irregularities and illegalities affected the integrity of the Presidential election.</i></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>..................................</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
A six-judge bench, by majority decision, on Friday indicted the Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission (IEBC), saying it conducted the elections contrary to the dictates of the Constitution and poll laws.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>4 JUDGES</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Chief Justice David Maraga agreed together with Deputy Chief Justice Philomena Mwilu, Smokin Wanjala and Isaac Lenaola that the electoral body messed up transmission of poll results.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
“A decision is hereby issued that the elections held on August 8, were not conducted in accordance with the Constitution and the applicable law. The results are therefore invalid, null and void,” Chief justice David Maraga said.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
"Elections is not an event but an process. After considering the totality of the entire evidence, we are satisfied that the elections were not conducted in accordance to the dictates of the Constitution and the applicable principles."</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Judges Jackton Ojwang and Njoki Ndung'u dissented while judge Mohammed Ibrahim, who fell ill on the second day of the case hearing, did not take part in the decision because he is still in hospital.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>LAWYERS</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Justices Ojwang’ and Ndung'u said the petitioner, National Super Alliance (Nasa) leader Raila Odinga, had failed to prove claims that the polls were rigged in favour of Mr Kenyatta.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The two said the polls were free, fair and credible as described by international observers.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Justice Ndung’u said challenges face every election and if they occurred, they were not deliberate or in bad faith.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The top court in Kenya, in a bold move, ordered the IEBC to conduct a fresh presidential election within strict confines of the law within 60 days.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Lawyers who represented President Kenyatta and the IEBC protested the judgment and sought explanations and clarifications from the judges.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Lawyer Ahmednasir Abdullahi, for Mr Kenyatta, faulted the court, saying it had made a political decision because no one is disputing that the voter made his decision.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>RIGGING</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
According to him, Lady Justice Ndung'u upheld the wishes of Kenyans.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
But Justice Maraga said, in due time, they would be able to demonstrate why they reached their decision.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Nasa lawyers, led by James Orengo, were happy with the decision and thanked the court for agreeing with them that IEBC flouted electoral laws.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
“The decision is history. The first judgement in Africa that has upset a presidential election. Supreme Court has done Kenya proud and lived up to the principle and law regarding election,” he said.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
“The decision by the court means well have new presidential election within 60 days. We hope this time around, they will not make the mistake of generating elections through computers.”</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>IEBC</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
“What IEBC did was treasonable because they wanted to declare the presidency against the Constitution. I don't think IEBC will preside over the election.</div>
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The decision has is a big win for Mr Odinga and his running mate Kalonzo Musyoka, who accused the IEBC of rigging the election in favour of Mr Kenyatta.</div>
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The two rejected the results even before they were announced on August 10, accusing the commission of imposing "computer-generated leaders" on Kenyans.</div>
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The quashing of Mr Kenyatta's victory is particularly important to Mr Odinga because it has granted his political career a lifeline.</div>
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Aged 72, Mr Odinga had promised his opposition co-principals that it was the last time he was running for State House after previous three barren attempts.</div>
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<b>'CANAAN'</b></div>
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After the vederct, Mr Odinga told his supporters that their march to what he has branded "Canaan" , the famed promised land, was unstoppable.</div>
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“This is a historic day for Kenyans and Africa. For the first time in history of democratisation in Africa, ruling made to nullify a presidential eletion,” he said</div>
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‘’Our journey is unstoppable. IEBC committed criminal act and belong to jail.”</div>
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Mr Musyoka, on his part, said Friday was a historic day not just for Kenya but Africa.</div>
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“The dignity of Supreme Court has been established. I am happy to be a Kenyan today. We will have to look deeply into the conduct of IEBC. We do not have faith that they can conduct a credible election,” he said.</div>
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After issuing the verdict, Mr Maraga, who is also the president of the court, urged Kenyans to maintain peace, saying an election is a process and not an event.</div>
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He pleaded with lawyers to help the country in maintaining the peace.</div>
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<b>Source: Daily Nation Kenya (01/09/2017).</b></div>
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jabahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02886069170766354845noreply@blogger.com0Nairobi, Kenya-1.2920659 36.821946199999957-1.5460579 36.499222699999955 -1.0380739 37.144669699999959tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-13519298994348805.post-80326244071420738912017-07-26T15:00:00.000+03:002017-07-26T15:00:21.782+03:00Dar es Salaam: Five foreigners pay 53m/- fine, escape jail term<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<i>Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.</i></div>
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<b>Five officials with CI Group Co Ltd on Monday escaped a three-year custodian sentence by paying a 52.5m/- fine after being convicted over illegal stay and engaging into unlawful occupation.</b></div>
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The convicts were two Executive Graphic Designers Shashi Shankar Upadhay (31) and Mohan Gaikwad as well as Marketing Officer Ashish Joshi (24), both Indian nationals. Others were an Accountant, Didar Karim (39) and Project Manager Manzoor Islam (31), Pakistan nationals.</div>
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Principal Resident Magistrate Cyprian Mkeha convicted the illegal immigrants on their own plea late on Monday before the Kisutu Resident Magistrate’s Court in Dar es Salaam. On the count of unlawful stay in the country, each of the accused was ordered to pay 500,000/- or serve a three-year jail term.</div>
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And, in the second count of working illegally, the court subjected each of the accused to the 10m/- fine or one year in prison. Prosecutor with the Immigration Department Method Kagoma had earlier alleged that on July 20, 2017 at CI Group Co Ltd in Kinondoni District in Dar es Salaam, the accused were found staying in the country without valid passes.</div>
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It was further alleged that at same place, the accused were found working without the working permit. Meanwhile, hearing of a drug abuse case against Video Vixen Agness Waya (28), alias Masogange, for the second time failed to kick off yesterday due to illness.</div>
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Previously, the matter was adjourned on grounds that the accused was sick. This time, it was the prosecutor’s child who was reported sick. Principal Resident Magistrate Wilbard Mashauri adjourned the case to August 9, this year.</div>
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The court was earlier informed that the matter had come up for hearing and two witnesses were present for the session to start. Masogange appeared before the court for the first time on February 22, this year and denied the charges.</div>
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It was alleged that the accused committed the offence on February 7, this year at unknown area and district, but within Dar es Salaam city.</div>
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The Video queen is alleged to have used narcotic drugs, namely Heroin (Diacety Imophine and Oxazepam types). Her arraignment came after being in police custody for several days having been suspected of dealing in narcotics.</div>
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She is among people the Dar es Salaam Regional Commissioner, Paul Makonda, named publicly as drug dealers.</div>
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<b>Source: Daily News (26/07/2017).</b></div>
jabahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02886069170766354845noreply@blogger.com0Tanzania-6.369028 34.888822000000005-22.3207485 14.234525000000005 9.5826925 55.543119000000004tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-13519298994348805.post-83773650532431728422017-06-21T23:09:00.001+03:002017-06-21T23:09:43.363+03:00Dar es Salaam: James Rugemalira and Mr Harbinder Singh Sethi arraigned for Tegeta Escrow Account Scandal <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b>Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.</b></div>
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<i>The Director of VIP Engineering and Marketing Mr James Rugemalira and Mr Harbinder Singh Sethi of Pan Africa Power Solutions Tanzania Limited (PAP), appeared at the Kisutu Magistrate Court yesterday (19/06/2017) facing six counts of economic sabotage and occasioning a loss to the government of US $ 22.1 million dollars and 309 bn/-.</i></div>
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State Attorney Paul Kadushi read the charges against them after which they were remanded since the lower court has no jurisdiction to prosecute such charges unless they get an approval from the Director of Public Prosecutions.</div>
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Resident Magistrate Huruma Shaidi explained further that economic sabotage crimes can only be heard at the High Court but that the DPP can in some instances issue an approval for the lower court to hear the charges.</div>
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The State Attorney informed the court that between October 18, 2011 and March 19, 2014, in Dar es Salaam, the duo conspired to commit offences in South Africa, Kenya, India and elsewhere.</div>
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During a session of parliament in November 2014, the august House had made eight resolutions one of which was for investigations and arrest of all people who were involved in the scandal.</div>
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The resolution followed a report by a special committee of the Parliamentary Public Accounts Committee (PAC) which was formed to probe the affair.</div>
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The court heard yesterday that between November 28 and 29, 2011 and on January 23, 2014 at the Stanbic Bank headquarters at Kinondoni and Mkombozi Bank, St Joseph Branch, the two businesspersons, through deceit, received the said amount from the Bank of Tanzania (BoT).</div>
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Before the arraignment of the duo yesterday, the Director General of Prevention and Combating of Corruption Bureau (PCCB), Mr Valentino Mlowola, told a news conference that the agency had all along been investigating the scam which rocked the country in 2014.</div>
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“The two will initially be brought before the Kisutu court before some judicial arrangements are made to transfer the case to the Corruption and Economic Crimes Division of the High Court,” Mr Mlowola explained to journalists.</div>
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The scandal involved the transfer of 309bn/- from an escrow account at the Bank of Tanzania (BoT), where it was jointly opened by Tanzania Electric Supply Company (TANESCO) and IPTL pending legal wrangles over capacity charges between the parties before domestic and international courts. IPTL, which operates dieselfired turbines at Tegeta in Dar es Salaam, was initially founded through a joint venture between a Malaysia company, Mechmar (70 per cent) and Mr Rugemalira’s VIP Engineering and Marketing Limited (30 per cent).</div>
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It is still unclear how Mechmar sold off its shares to another company, PiperLink of British Virgin Island, which later allegedly sold its stake to Mr Sethi’s PAP.</div>
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Billions of shillings were then paid to Mr Sethi from the account after he convinced officials that he had acquired a 70 per cent stake in IPTL. He then proceeded to acquire the 30 per cent stake which was owned by VIP Engineering and Marketing.</div>
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To seal a deal with Mr Rugemalira’s company, it is said that Mr Sethi had to pay a whopping US $75 million dollars (about 165bn/-) to acquire the 30 per cent.</div>
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As the scandal ravaged on with calls for actions from the parliament and subsequent investigations by PCCB and audits by the Controller and Auditor General (CAG), several top government officials were sacked while others resigned.</div>
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Among those who resigned were the then Minister for En ergy and Minerals, Prof Sospeter Muhongo and Attorney General Fredrick Werema, while Prof Anna Tibaijuka, then Minister for Lands, Housing and Human Settlements Development, was fired by former President Jakaya Kikwete.</div>
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The former UN Habitat boss was fired after it emerged that she had been paid 1.6bn/- by Mr Rugemalira. The funds were suspected to be part of monies from the escrow account.</div>
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The list of other individuals said to have pocketed some of the funds include former Minister for Energy and Minerals William Ngeleja and former Attorney General Andrew Chenge. President Kikwete also dropped the then Permanent Secretary in the Ministry of Energy and Minerals, Mr Eliakim Maswi.</div>
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<b>Source: Daily News Tanzania (20/06/2017).</b></div>
jabahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02886069170766354845noreply@blogger.com0Dar es Salaam, Tanzania-6.792354 39.208328400000028-7.296923 38.56288140000003 -6.2877849999999995 39.853775400000025tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-13519298994348805.post-28151654852233304552017-06-08T13:16:00.003+03:002017-06-08T13:16:54.462+03:00Dar es Salaam: TBS official in court over illegal stay<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b>Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.</b></div>
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<i>The Tanzania Bureau of Standard (TBS) Principal Legal Officer, Baptister Bitaho (54), a Burundian national, has appeared before a Dar es Salaam court facing three counts, including working in the country without a valid permit.</i></div>
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The other charges comprise unlawful presence in the country, without a valid visa, and making false statement which allowed him to obtain a Tanzanian passport. Before the Kisutu Senior Resident Magistrate, Victoria Nongwa, the accused pleaded not guilty to all the charges and was granted bail on condition that he avails two sureties, who are citizens and will have to sign a bond of 20m/-.</div>
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A Prosecutor with the Immigration Department, Mr Novatus Mlay, informed the court that investigations into the matter were yet to be completed. Bitaho requested the court to grant him bail.</div>
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It was alleged that on May 19, 2017 at Kinondoni District Immigration Office in the city, the accused being a citizen of the United Republic of Burundi, was found to be unlawfully present in the country.</div>
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According to the Prosecutor, Bitaho committed the offence knowing that he was breaching immigration laws. Mr Mlay also alleged that during the same occasion in Kinondoni District, the accused was found engaging in occupation, as Principal Legal Officer for TBS, without a valid work permit.</div>
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In the third count, the accused on July 6, 2011 at the Dar es Salaam Immigration Office in Ilala District in the city, being a foreigner made a false statement regarding his personal particulars on the passport application form CT (5)(Ai).</div>
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<b>Source: Daily News Tanzania.</b></div>
jabahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02886069170766354845noreply@blogger.com0Dar es Salaam, Tanzania-6.792354 39.208328400000028-7.296923 38.56288140000003 -6.2877849999999995 39.853775400000025tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-13519298994348805.post-11138754424536098582017-06-08T13:14:00.004+03:002017-06-08T13:14:53.849+03:00Kampala: Kabaka protests High Court order over Bank Statement<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b>Kampala, Uganda.</b></div>
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<i><br /></i></div>
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<i>The Buganda administration have said the kingdom’s bank accounts details should remain secret and have petitioned High Court to halt its orders compelling Kabaka Ronald Muwenda Mutebi to produce financial statements of the kingdom’s bank accounts.</i></div>
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On Monday, High Court judge Patricia Basaza granted a request by a petitioner Mr Kiwanuka Mabirizi, for the Kabaka to reveal to him bank statements detailing the money the Mengo administration has collected from people living on the kingdom land. The Kabaka was ordered to present the bank details by June 30.</div>
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Mr Mabirizi is challenging the Kabaka’s decision to levy fees against people living on the kingdom land. The registration fees range from Shs100,000 and Shs600,000.</div>
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“We are not contented and we have moved to the High Court to ask for the stay of execution of the judgment,” city lawyer and Buganda Kingdom attorney general Daudi Mpanga told a press conference in Kampala yesterday.</div>
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“Like other organisations, the kingdom or Kabaka need privacy to their accounts. We must preserve our dignity,” Mr Mpanga said.</div>
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<b>Source: Daily Monitor Uganda.</b></div>
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jabahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02886069170766354845noreply@blogger.com0Kampala, Uganda0.3475964 32.5825197000000340.093542400000000026 32.259796200000032 0.6016504 32.905243200000037tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-13519298994348805.post-50256820762911720672017-06-08T13:12:00.000+03:002017-06-08T13:17:09.667+03:00Dar es Salaam: Legal controversies mar Mwingira’s case<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b>Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.</b></div>
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<i>KISUTU Resident Magistrate’s Court was yesterday compelled to adjourn the 7.5bn/- adultery case against Prophet Josephat Mwingira and Phillis Nyimbi over legal controversies.</i></div>
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Principal Resident Magistrate Thomas Simba was scheduled to start hearing the suit but pushed the session forward to July 18 to allow advocate Respicius Ishengoma to discuss with his client, an American Doctor William Morris, who lodged the case, on certainty of the sought prayers.</div>
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In the prayers, Dr Morris is pleading with the court to order Mwingira, the Chief Executive Officer of Efata Ministry, to pay him 7.5bn/- as general damages for allegedly committing adultery, unlawfully cohabiting with his wife, Dr Nyimbi.</div>
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The plaintiff also seeks orders for HIV tests on all three parties, himself, Mwingira and Dr Nyimbi as well as orders of DNA test between the child and the two defendants. He is also pressing for payments of punitive and exemplary damages, interests and costs of the suit.</div>
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But, in yesterday’s court proceedings, the magistrate questioned the rationale behind the prayers on HIV and DNA tests, as they will have no use at the end of the trial. He questioned where the results will be taken to after the tests as the file will already be closed after determining the suit.</div>
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“The HIV and DNA testing are reliefs that have been asked to be given at the end of the trial. Assume we grant these two prayers, where will the results be taken to?</div>
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How this court will benefit from the results adduced after determining the suit,” the magistrate questioned. Prophet Mwingira and Dr Nyimbi are alleged to have entered into love affairs at unknown date despite the lady being the lawful wife of Dr Morris, the plaintiff.</div>
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It is further alleged that when the plaintiff enquired on the issue, the wife claimed to have been raped by Mwingira. The alleged rape did not only result into pregnancy but also other serious medical complications.</div>
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It is claimed that on December 28, 2001, Dr Morris contracted a Christian marriage with Dr Nyimbi at St Albans Anglican Church, Upanga, in the city. According to the suit, in the course of alleged love affairs between the defendants, the couple got an issue aged nine years now and a series of medical complications on the wife.</div>
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It is claimed further that the plaintiff reported the case to Coast Regional Police in Kibaha but the police informed him that the act was adultery or defamation, which did not fall under the criminal cases because there was love affairs and was advised to pursue the civil case.</div>
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“The act of second defendant (Dr Nyimbi) having love affairs with the first defendant (Rev. Mwingira) is the betrayal to the valid marriage between the plaintiff and the second defendant...the same has frustrated all the plaintiff’s future plans to the extent of losing the taste of living,” the plaint reads.</div>
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It is alleged that acts of the two has also ashamed and or defamed and lowered the reputation of the plaintiff not only in Tanzania but also in the world. The act has allegedly not only ruined the plaintiff’s social life but also psychologically and economically.</div>
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“This resulted in the damage and loss of business to his international NGO due to loss of sponsorships from individuals and institutions from around and the possibility of a legal action by one of the organization’s main supporters,” it is further stated in the plaint of the suit.</div>
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The plaint show that the plaintiff has been living and practicing in Texas in the USA as an Obstetrician Gynaecologist, a Lecturer and Health Program Director for over 20 years.</div>
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The couple was living in peace and harmony and Dr Morris managed to acquire a Multi-national Executive or manager Visa status for his wife.</div>
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<b>Source: Daily News Tanzania</b></div>
jabahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02886069170766354845noreply@blogger.com0Tanzania-6.369028 34.888822000000005-22.3207485 14.234525000000005 9.5826925 55.543119000000004tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-13519298994348805.post-57541128293382404132017-04-28T13:38:00.000+03:002017-04-28T13:38:27.383+03:00Court dismisses Museveni defamation case against Otunnu<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<b>Kampala, Uganda.</b><br />
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<i>Court in Kampala has dismissed the case in which former Uganda People’s Congress (UPC) party president Olara Otunnu was accused of defaming President Museveni.</i></div>
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Buganda Road Court grade one magistrate, Ms Joan Aciro dismissed the case on grounds that the prosecution had failed to produce sufficient evidence against Mr Otunnu.</div>
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"The only prosecution witness brought to court was Mr Gideon Tugume, a journalist working with Top Television. However, Mr Tugume who appeared in court once was never cross examined by the defence as was required in this case.</div>
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Prosecution was put on notice to bring him for cross examination but in vain. Prosecution failed to produce him therefore such testimony is of no value on court record," Ms Aciro said.</div>
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The trial magistrate also noted that Mr Tugume in his testimony had informed court that he captured Mr Otunnu making the defamatory statements against the president. However, he did not submit in court any recording to prove the allegations.</div>
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“Court can not only base on only witness’s allegations to convict someone,”Ms Aciro added. </div>
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After the court ruling, Mr Otunnu through his lawyer Mr Asuman Basalirwa said he would sue the government over malicious prosecution.</div>
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The case arose from Mr Otunnu’s January 16, 2013 press conference in which he allegedly questioned the deaths of what he called President Museveni’s allies since the Front for National Salvation’s (Fronasa) struggles to date, saying they should be investigated.</div>
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Prosecution had stated that on January 16, 2013 at UPC party headquarters at Uganda House, in Kampala, Mr Otunnu, with intent to defame President Museveni, allegedly caused a publication of a defamatory matter.</div>
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The said incidents include: atrocities in Luwero while Museveni commanded rebellious forces between 1981 and 1986; the massacres of Muslims in Ankole in 1979 when Museveni was commander of the Western Axis of anti-Amin forces composed mainly of his FRONASA contingent.</div>
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Others are; the massacre at Ombaci in West Nile in 1981; the scorched-earth counter-insurgency operations and genocide in northern and eastern Uganda between 1986 and 2006; and the wanton killing of unarmed demonstrators on the streets of Kampala, in September 2009.</div>
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Otunnu reportedly pointed out that a lot of disappearances and mysterious deaths had occurred under Museveni’s watch and authority since the Front for National Salvation’s (FRONASA) struggles to-date, saying they should be investigated.</div>
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His remarks prompted the Attorney General to write to the then UPC president giving him five days to make a public apology for his comments, or face legal action. Mr Otunnu has since declined to make any apologies.</div>
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The State further claimed that on February 28, 2013 without reasonable excuse, the UPC leader also ignored a police summon to appear before the Media Crime Department at CIID despite acknowledging receipt of the summon at a press conference he convened at Uganda House.</div>
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<b>Source: Daily Monitor (28/04/2017)</b></div>
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jabahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02886069170766354845noreply@blogger.com0Kampala, Uganda0.3475964 32.5825197000000340.093542400000000026 32.259796200000032 0.6016504 32.905243200000037tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-13519298994348805.post-68684283906088142062017-04-28T13:35:00.000+03:002017-04-28T13:35:10.895+03:00Kenya: MCAs to still receive salaries after General Election<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b>Nairobi, Kenya.</b></div>
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<i>Ward representatives will continue receiving salaries eight months after the August 8 General Election, even if they lose their seats.</i></div>
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The High Court ruled today that the members of the county assembly be paid for their full five-year tenure.</div>
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Justice Edward Muriithi however said the reps will be paid monthly and not as a lump sum to ease the burden on taxpayers.</div>
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<b>LEGAL BACKING</b></div>
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The judge ruled that the five-year tenure for ward reps ends on March 2018 because the Constitution provides that they should serve for five years.</div>
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He however said the exact amount of compensation still needs to be determined since there are emoluments that will not remain payable since they will not be actively working.</div>
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“The county assembly members suffer a reduced opportunity to remain in office for the full term of their constitutional tenure consistent with their right to hold office and, for that reason, they are entitled to compensation for the lost income for that period,” Justice Muriithi ruled.</div>
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<b>REVISE CONSTITUTION</b></div>
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However, the judge pointed out that the Constitution needs to be amended to align the tenure of ward reps with that of members of Parliament and other elective state officers of the national and county governments.</div>
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But the judge categorically stated that he had not been asked to determine the issue of amendment of the date of the General Election, and so he had not.</div>
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“For avoidance of doubt, this judgment does not affect the holding of the General Election scheduled for August 8 and the payment of salary as well as other applicable emoluments shall be per month in arrears at the end of every month for the period,” he said.</div>
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<b>COMPENSATION ISSUE</b></div>
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Since the verdict has a direct effect on all MCAs, the judge further said that parties in the case are now at liberty to move back to court to have a decree as to the payable emoluments, consistent with circumstances of when the reps are not working.</div>
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Two voters, Mr Andrew Kiplimo Sang and Mr Richard Ouma, and the County Assemblies Forum sued the electoral commission and the attorney-general.</div>
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They challenged the setting of the date of the General Election and sought an interpretation of the law on when the term of county assembly members end, as well as whether they are entitled to compensation for the reduced period.</div>
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There are 2,526 county assembly members earning a basic monthly salary of Sh165,000 each, which amounts to Sh416 million.</div>
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<b>TENURE OF OFFICE</b></div>
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They were elected in the March 2013 General Election.</div>
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The bone of contention that saw the matter land in court is the fact that the terms of the President and county governors come to an end when a new one is sworn in, as per the Constitution.</div>
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The law also states clearly that the term of MPs ends on the date of elections.</div>
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However, the Constitution only indicates that county assembly members have a fixed five-year term in office.</div>
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<b>Source: Daily Nation (27/04/2017).</b></div>
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jabahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02886069170766354845noreply@blogger.com0Nairobi, Kenya-1.2920659 36.821946199999957-1.5460579 36.499222699999955 -1.0380739 37.144669699999959tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-13519298994348805.post-12298190336185841642017-04-28T13:32:00.000+03:002017-04-28T13:32:09.190+03:00Government reads riot act to investors over labour laws<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b>Dodoma, Tanzania.</b></div>
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<i>The government, yesterday, sternly warned investors who do not observe the country’s labour laws, including blacklisting workers and using humiliating methods when searching their employees.</i></div>
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The Deputy Minister in the Prime Minister’s Office (Policy, Parliamentary Affairs, Labour, Employment, Youth and the Disabled), Mr Anthony Mavunde, said his office has received numerous complaints of workers being humiliated during searching, while some are blacklisted, making it difficult for them to get work in other mines.</div>
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“When investors express interest to invest in the country, they are usually availed information on the country’s laws and regulations. Mr Mavunde said labour laws do not allow blacklisting of workers or using humiliating methods to search them such as making them strip and inspect their private parts.</div>
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“This is violation of human rights and measures will be taken against those found doing this.” The Deputy Minister was responding to a supplementary question from Joyce Mukya (Special Seats--Chadema) who wanted to know if there was an alternative method of searching workers instead of humiliating them such as what is currently being done at Tanzanite One in Arusha.</div>
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Mr Mavunde confirmed that he received such reports when he visited Tanzanite One in Arusha and issued directives, and a report by a committee formed to investigate mines in the country will shade more light on weather that method is still being used or not.</div>
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Earlier, the Deputy Minister said his office continues to oversee implementation of labour laws through conducting inspections at workplace. “Labour law education is also dispensed to workers and workers’ unions in an effort to increase their knowledge on the issue.</div>
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Measures have been taken including dragging to court, employers who go against the laws,” he explained. Mr Mavunde was responding to a basic question from John Kadutu (Ulyankulu – CCM), who wanted to know when the government will conduct inspection of contracts of companies contracted by mines and if the government will remove employers who humiliate their employees.</div>
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The Deputy Minister said the government formed a taskforce comprising officers from the PMO, National Social Security Fund, Social Security Regulatory Authority, OSHA, Tanzania Revenue Authority and Tanzania Minerals Audit Agency (TMAA) to conduct in-depth assessment on whether labour laws are being implemented, among other issues, in the Lake Zone and Northern mines.</div>
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“The government recognizes the importance of investors in increasing job opportunities to Tanzanians as well as contributing to the country’s economic growth. We will continue to ensure labour laws are implemented at workplaces,” he stressed.</div>
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<b>Source: Daily News (28/04/2017)</b></div>
jabahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02886069170766354845noreply@blogger.com0Dodoma, Tanzania-6.1629590000000007 35.75160690000007-6.289253 35.590245400000072 -6.0366650000000011 35.912968400000068tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-13519298994348805.post-40554786291544548532017-04-28T13:29:00.003+03:002017-04-28T13:29:35.978+03:00African court to hear 84 cases<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b>Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.</b></div>
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<i>THE African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights (AfCHPR) is set to determine 84 cases in its 45th Ordinary Session to be held in Arusha City starting early next month, it has been announced.</i></div>
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According to a statement issued in Dar es Salaam yesterday, during the session to be held from May 8 to 24, this year, the judges of the court will, among others, examine about 80 applications and four requests for Advisory Opinion.</div>
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The Court is composed of 11 judges who are nationals of Member States of the African Union elected in their individual capacity.</div>
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It meets four times a year in Ordinary Sessions and may hold Extra-Ordinary Sessions. Until April 25, this year, the Court had received 138 applications and has finalized 32 cases.</div>
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The AfCHPR was established by virtue of Article 1 of the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights.</div>
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The main reason for its establishment was to complement the protective mandate of the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights to enhance the protection of human rights on the continent.</div>
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Since the adoption of the Protocol in June 1998, about 30 of 55 African Union Member States have ratified it and only eight state parties to the Protocol have made the declaration under Article 34(6).</div>
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Tunisia signed the declaration on April 13, this year, becoming the eighth country to do so.</div>
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Other countries that have previously signed it are Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Malawi, Mali and Tanzania. Rwanda, which had signed, formally withdrew from the declaration last month, although the African Union Summit has urged the East African country to reconsider its position.</div>
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Meanwhile, the Republic of Ivory Coast has reiterated its commitments and full support of the African Court mandate. President Alassane Ouattara has invited the Court’s leadership to host their 47th Ordinary Session and the third Judicial Dialogue in Abidjan in November, this year.</div>
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According to a statement, the president of the West African country pledged his government’s readiness to work hand in hand with the Court to put in place all necessary arrangements to make the two activities memorable events.</div>
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President Ouattara had met with AfCHPR President, Justice Sylvain Orė, who called on him at his Palace in Abidjan recently. During their meeting, the two leaders discussed a range of issues, including the work of the African Court and the protection of human rights on the continent.</div>
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<b>Source: Daily News (28/04/2017).</b></div>
jabahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02886069170766354845noreply@blogger.com0Dar es Salaam, Tanzania-6.792354 39.208328400000028-7.296923 38.56288140000003 -6.2877849999999995 39.853775400000025